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§11. Clauses joined by causative-consecutive conjunctions and conjunc­tive adverbs are as a rule separated by a comma or a semicolon.

"Who?" asked Clyde, pretending an innocence he could not physically verify, for his cheeks and forehead flushed. (Dreiser)

Don't approach me; for I hate you beyond measure. (Bennett)

Clauses joined by the conjunction so are separated by a comma.

It was clear that something had happened, so we eased up. (Jerome)

Occasionally we find a dash or a colon before the conjunctions for and so.

Aunt Polly asked him questions — for she wanted to trap him into damaging revealments. (Twain)

Becky was gone to her Constantinople home to stay with her parents during vacations — so there was no bright side to life anywhere. (Twain)

There is an increasing tendency to discard the comma between coordinate clauses, but it is still desirable before but and obligatory before for; while, whilst, whereas, only.

§ 12. As has been stated in Chapter XVII, § 6, a sentence containing direct speech consists of two independent clauses.

Direct speech is given in quotation marks. The clause containing direct speech is separated from the other coordinate clause, which introduces the direct speech, by a comma.

The lady said to her friend, "Why, Rawdon, it's Captain Dobbin." (Thackeray)

"Come in and have your milk," he said. (Galsworthy)

A colon is also possible.

Bosinney replied coolly: "The work is a remarkable one." (Gals­worthy)

'June's not here," said his father hastily: "went off to-day on a visit." (Galsworthy)

If the clause containing direct speech is interrogative or exclama­tory, a note of interrogation or a note of exclamation is used; the clause is not separated from the other clause by a stop, if the clause containing direct speech precedes the other. If it follows the other clause, a comma or a semicolon is used.

"Where do you get your things?" he said in an aggravated voice. (Galsworthy)

"I'd no idea it was so good!" he said. (Galsworthy)

She sank down by his side and cried: "Oh, Phil! it's all so horrid!" (Galsworthy)

Then Soames asked: "When do you expect to have finished?" (Galsworthy)

The Complex Sentence

To separate subordinate clauses from the principal clause the fol­lowing rules on the use of commas are observed.

§ 13. Subject clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any comma.

What he learned of farming in that week might have been balanced on the point of a penknife and puffed off. (Galswor­thy)

However, a comma is found if the subject clause is of some length and if a subordinate clause is attached to it.

What had saved him from becoming a cross between a lap dog and a little prig, had been his father's adoration of his mother. (Galsworthy)

§ 14. Predicative clauses as a rule are not separated from the principal clause by any comma. A comma is often used when they are joined asyndetically.

Ruth's point of view was that he was doing no more than was right. (London)

My opinion is, she'd come to me. (Weyman)

§15. Object clauses are not separated from the principal clause by a comma. If the object clause precedes the principal clause, a comma may or may not be used.

The silence was so long and deep that he looked up wondering why the Padre did not speak. (Voynich)

... and what Browning had done for her, Martin decided he could do for Ruth. (London)

§ 16. Attributive clauses.

  1. Restrictive relative attributive clauses are not separated from the principal clause by commas.

You may be sure every smuggler in the Apennines will do for a man who was in the Savigno revolt what he will not do for us. (Voynich)

  1. Non-restrictive relative attributive clauses are as a rule separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Tom presented himself before Aunt Polly, who was sitting by an open window. (Twain)

I turned hastily round, and found at my elbow a pretty little girl, who begged to be directed to a certain street at a considerable distance. (Dickens)

  1. Continuative attributive clauses are always separated from the principal clause by a comma.

Oliver was frightened at the sight of so many gentlemen, which made him tremble: and the beadle gave him another tap behind, which made him cry. (Dickens)

  1. Appositive attributive clauses, are never separated from the principal clause by a punctuation mark.

The thought that his adored daughter should learn of that old scandal hurt his pride too much. (Galsworthy)

She paused with an uneasy sense that instead of defending Kath she was providing ammunition against her. (Lindsay)