Загальна та часткові теорії перекладу. Адекватність і точність перекладу. Типи відповідників при перекладі.

The general theory of translation

The Partial translation theory

Is the scientific concept of the nature and characteristics of any bilingual communication. The general theory of translation studies the most common linguistic patterns of translation and methods of the present process and individual characteristics of a particular act of translation/

Is the scientific concept of features of different types of translation, or the comparison of two languages /

equivalent

is exact accordance to the word or word-combination in other language, that in most cases does not depend on a context; Equivalents are mainly translate phraseologisms.

e.g – apple (яблуко); the House of Commons - Палата громад; the apple of the eye - зіниця ока

analogues

Is one of possible synonyms. The choice of word from the number of synonyms during translation is determined by a context.The choice of analogue depends on semantic sense of word and its stylistic colouring;

e.g. to cook - куховарити, готувати (страву); варити, смажити, пекти

descriptive translation

is a type of translation, when instead of word its explanation is used. Such translation of word method is usually used, when in dictionary of target language there arenot equivalents and analogues.

e.g - high tea  - вечірній чай із закускою після раннього обіду;

affirmative action - дії, спрямовані проти дискримінації по відношенню до певних груп населення.

Prorer names

Ukrainian proper names of people and family names are mostly conveyed on the basis of their phonemic/orthographic structure are transliterated in English. E.g.: Антоніна Antonina; Bipa Vira; Лаврін Lavrin/

A transliteration comes true by means of the Romanizatin system:

Укр/ letter (в) as англ. (v) or (w); укр..(щ) as англ. letter combination (shch)/

A few English proper names are transliterated with the omission or addition of a letter or two in Ukrainian. This kind of rendering becomes necessary when dealing with specifically English spelling forms of proper names and to avoid the violation of the traditionally established spelling rules of the Ukrainian language: McDonald Макдональд, McEnroe Макенро, Dinah Діна.

Geographical names

A considerable number of English geographical names are also rendered into Ukrainian by way of transcription only: Dashwood Дешвуд, Dundee-Данді, Freetown Фрітаун, Newfoundland Ньюфаундленд, Greenfield Ґрінфілд.

Many English place names, along with other geographical and proper names, are conveyed in Ukrainian partly with the help of transcription and partly via transliteration. This can be observed in the two-syllable names in the examples below. The first (1) group of the geographical names has the initial syllables transliterated and the closing syllables transcribed (Birmingham Бірмінгем), whereas the second group (2) contains geographical names with the initial syllables transcribed and the closing syllables transliterated (Houston Г'юстон).

Names of seas, oceans, bays, archipelagos, isthmuses, straits, channels, administrative territories and compound names of countries having the structure of word-combinations are always translated: the Atlantic/Pacific/Indian Ocean Атлантичний/Тихий/ Індійський океан; Карпати/Карпатські гори the Carpathians/ Carpathian.

The geographical names formed on the basis of common nouns which acquired the status of proper names are generally trans­lated from English into Ukrainian and vice versa: Cape of Good Hope/ Cape May мис Доброї Надії/мис Кейп-Мей. Still other geographical names having single word and word-combination structures require some identifying element in the tar­get language (an appositional noun, an adjective, etc.). These elements explain the nature and the real meaning of the geographical name in the target language: the Azores/the Seychelles Азорські/ Сейшельські о-ви.

By Transcription or Transliteration Exclusively

The units of the nationally specific lexicon, whose meanings are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine internationalisms and comprise social and political units of lexicon in the main (cf. lord, lady, mister, shilling, kozak, hryvnia)

By Transcription or Transliteration and Explication of Their Genuine Nationally Specific Meaning

In many a case the lingual form of a unit of nationally specific lexicon conveyed through transcription or transliteration can not pro­vide a full expression of its lexical meaning. Then an additional expli­cation of its sense becomes necessary. It happens when the unit/ notion of the culturally biased lexicon is introduced in the target lan­guage for the first time or when it is not yet known to the broad public of the target language readers/listeners. The explanation may be given either in the translated passage/speech flow, where the cultur­ally biased unit is used or in a footnote r- when a lengthy explication becomes necessary: They took her to the Tower of London. – Вони показали їй стародавню лондонську фортецю Тауер.

By Descriptive Explaining/Explication Only

For some reason or other the orthographic form of a consider­able number of sense units belonging to the nationally specific lexi­con of the source language can not be rendered into the target language. That happens mostly when the transcription/transliteration can not be helpful in expressing the sense of the culturally biased national unit, or when it might bring about an unnecessary ambiguity in the target language narration/text cf.: matron завгосп у навчальному закладі (суміщає економку і медсестру), Pilgrim Fathers Батьки-прочани – перші колоністи з Англії, що прибули 1620 року до Північної Америки,

By Translation of Componental Parts and Additional Explication of Units of the Nationally Biased Lexicon

The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be faithfully rendered by way of regular translation of all or some of their componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning pertaining to the source language unit (cf. bull’s eye бичаче око – круглий великий різнокольорний м’ятний льодяник, collective membership – тимчасове колективне членство в лейбористській партії, ginger ale – імбирний ель/імбирне ситро – безалкогольний газований напій). Due to this way of rendering the meanings of this kind of units practically involves two simultaneous performances. The first is a regular translation of the main, if not all, componental parts and the next, which follows it, is a more or less exhaustive explanation of the essence pertained to the specific national element of the source language. The extent of the explanation in the target language is prede­termined by the nature of the specific unit of national lexicon, by the purpose of translation, and also by some characteristic possibilities of the text in which the unit is used.

By Ways of Word-for-Word or Loan Translation

When the componental parts making up the units of the nationally specific lexicon are at the same time the main transparent bearers of their proper sence expressed through their meaning, a faithful translation of such sense units may be achieved either by way of word-for-word translation or by way of loan translation. Each of these ways can be well exemplified in English and Ukrainian.

A.Translated word-for-word are the specific national units of lexicon as first (second, third) reading перше (друге, трете) читання (офіційне внесення законопроекту в англійський парламент);

В. The denotative meaning of many units of the specific na­tional lexicon may be rendered by way of loan translating as well: from English: Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) Армія порятунку; the Order of the Garter/of the Bath орден Підв'зки/Лазні

Translating by Means of Semantic Analogies

Despite the differences in economic, social, political, cultural and in many cases also geographical/environmental conditions, un­der which the nation of the source language and that of the target language lives and develops some peculiar notions in both the lan­guages may be identical or similar/analogous in their meaning and functioning.

the City/Town Board of Education міський відділ освіти; pop corn кукурудзяні баранці; gingerbread імбирний пряник; shop-steward голова профкому