3.Automatic natural ling. Analyses: tagging, parsing

The objectives of Comp. ling are:

1. Automatic tagging (automatically disambiguating part of speech labels in text (додавання до кожного слова ярличків, аналізують окремі слова).

2. main types of Taggings:

~ Probalistic t. – are trained on disambiguated text and vary as to how much training text is needed and how much human effort is required in the training process.

~ Rule-based taggers – rely strictly on ling categorization and level

2. Parsing (розпізнають конструкції) – a system must assign a complete constituent analysis to every sentence it encounters. Comp. ling uses parsers for the automatic analysis of lang. The term “parse” is derived from the Latin word pars meaning “part”, as in part of speech. P. in its most basic form consists in:

1. The automatic decomposition of a complex sign into its elementary components;

2. The automatic classification of the components via

3. The automatic composition of the classified components while syntactic rules in order to arrive at an overall grammatical analysis of the complex sign.

3. Word-sense disambiguation – statistical methods r u used to exploit the distributional characteristics of words, presented in the form of concordance.

4. Formal semantic is rooted in the philosophy of lang and is concentrated on the structural aspects of meaning.

5. Discourse analyses is concerned with coherent processing of text segments larger than sentence and assumes that this processing requires more than just interpretation of the individual sentences.

The classifications of styles:

Galperin distinguishes 5 types of F. Styles:

1. Fiction ( it accomposes poetry, emotive prose, and drama)

2. Publisistic style (Oratory and speeches. The essay articles)

3. Newspapers (brief news items, headlines, advertisements and announcements)

4. Scientific prose

5. Official doc.

Kuzniez distinguishes :

1. Literaly bookish style: ~publisistic ~ scientific ~ official doc

2. Free colloquial style: ~literal c. s ~familiar

Arnold singles out 4 styles: 1. Poetic; 2. Scientific; 3. Newspaper; 4. Colloquial

Morohowskij singles out: 1. Official business; 2. Scientif. Prose; 3. Publicistic; 4. Literally colloquial; 5. Familiar coll. Style

1.The notion of genre and style

A literary genre is a category of literary composition. Genres may be determined by literary technique, tone, content, or even (as in the case of fiction) length. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young-adult, or children's. They also must not be confused with format, such as graphic novel or picture book. The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups. The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological order) epic, tragedy, comedy, novel, short story, and creative nonfiction. They can all be in the genres prose or poetry, which shows best how loosely genres are defined. Additionally, a genre such as satire, allegory or pastoral might appear in any of the above, not only as a sub-genre but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement of the historical period in which they were composed.

Genres are often divided into sub-genres. Literature, for instance, is divided into three basic kinds of literature, the classic genres of the Ancient Greece, poetry,drama, and prose. Poetry may then be subdivided into epic, lyric, and dramatic. Subdivisions of drama include foremost comedy and tragedy, while e.g. comedy itself has sub-genres, including farce, comedy of manners, burlesque, and satire.

Dramatic poetry for instance, might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama, and mixtures like tragicomedy. This parsing into sub-genres can continue: comedy has its own sub-genres, including, for example, comedy of manners, sentimental comedy, burlesque comedy, and satirical comedy. Also the mixtures, such as tragicomedy, have sub-genres, for example, hardboiled fiction characterized by the tragicomic cynical narrator's self-talk.

Nonfiction can cross many genres but is typically expressed in essays, memoir, and other forms that may or may not be narrative but share the characteristics of being fact-based, artistically-rendered prose.

Often, the criteria used to divide up works into genres are not consistent, and may change constantly, and be subject of argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even a very loose term like fiction ("literature created from the imagination, not presented as fact, though it may be based on a true story or situation") is not universally applied to all fictitious literature, but instead is typically restricted to the use for novel, short story, and novella, but not fables, and is also usually a prose text. Types of fiction genres are science fiction, fantasy, historical fiction, realistic fiction and mysteries.

Semi-fiction spans stories that include a substantial amount of non-fiction. It may be the retelling of a true story with only the names changed. The other way around, semi-fiction may also involve fictional events with a semi-fictional character, such as Jerry Seinfeld.

Genres may easily be confused with literary techniques, but, though only loosely defined, they are not the same; examples are parody, frame story, constrained writing, stream of consciousness

A functional style is a system of expressive means and vocabulary serving a definite aim of communication. The English bookish literary language comprises the following functional style: the scientific prose style; the style of official documents; the publicistic style; the newspaper style; the belles – letters or fiction style. The informal variety of functional style is also worth mentioning, it’s – colloquial style.

Journalistic (Publicistic) Style is used in compositions devoted to some social, political, moral, ethnical, cultural, etc problem and meant for the wide public: readers and listeners. It is found both in written and oral forms. Its written forms are essays, pamphlets, editorials, newspaper and magazine articles of a literary critical and social-political character. Its oral form – speeches. The function of journalistic style is to make the reader or listener react to it in the way the author desires. Characteristic features are:direct addresses , a lot of repetitions , frequent use of rhetorical questions, frequent use of phraseology, bookish words,wide use of quaotations.

Newspaper Style is a peculiar functional style which differs from journalistic style by its informality. It is found in newspaper articles, chronicling sensational trials, accidents, local news, etc. Characteristic features are omission of articles, link verbs, pronouns,Logical arrangement of sentences, Newspaper clichés and set phrases, Terminological variety, Abbreviations, Numerous dates, proper names, International words, Neologisms

Official Style is presented by several varieties: the style of diplomatic documents, business correspondence, in law: the style of statutes, codes, parliamentary bills, etc, and military documents. The main aim of official speech is to reach an agreement between two interested sides. As there is only one way communication at a time in the style of official documents, its syntax and vocabulary are characterized by:use of passive constructions, use of terminology, abbreviations, no emotive words, no connotative meaning, always uses complete sentences, often uses longer, more complex contractions, requests are longer, doesn’t use contractions

Scientific Prose Style is characterized: use of author’s WE instead of I, passive constructions, numerous neologisms, no emotive words, no slang, numerous proper names, highly formalized text, lots of tables, diagrams

Poetic (Belles-lettres) Style is the richest register of communication.The main function of poetic style is by using language and specific stylistic means to promote the intention of the author, to aid him in a profound disclosure of the inner cause of the conditions of the existence, development and disappearance of a fact of social reality. Belles-letter style or poetic style comprises poetry proper, fiction or emotive prose, dramaturgy (style of drama).The most important characteristic feature of poetic style is its imagery. The use of lexical, morphological and syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices.

Colloquial functional style is a speech style and consequently mostly found in dialogue. It is a style of everyday use. The vocabulary is more free, the syntax more simple, the pronunciation in oral speech more careless.There are three types of colloquial functional style as you remember and the use of the particular colloquial style literary colloquial, or familiar colloquial (low colloquial being illiterate popular speech) depends on the circumstances, the relations of the speakers.The boundaries between colloquial styles are not very sharply defined, especially concerning their grammatical peculiarities. Literary colloquial is the speech of educated persons. It is employed in dialogue when the speakers conform to social conventions, when they know each other very little, or their conversation deals with some serious or business topic. Familiar Colloquial deviates to a large extent from the literary norm. Besides familiar colloquial words, slang words are frequent. Verbs with postposotives prevail: to put down – to land, to go on – to continue, etc. Interjections are numerous: why! well! there! dear me! oh, my! gee! The vocabulary is mostly limited to words of a general meaning, the sense it is employed in is seen from the context: get, fix, do, business, nice, swell, etc.

English, as any developed language, contains an open set of sublanguages corresponding to different speech spheres and characterized by a relatively limited amount of language units. These sublanguages are partially correlated. They are determined by different spheres of communication and the latter implies functional difference. Each style of the literary language makes use of a set of language means, the interrelation of which is peculiar to the given style. It is the coordination of the language means and stylistic devices that shapes the distinctive features of each style, but not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each style, however, can be recognized by one or more leading features, which are especially conspicuous.