II. Fire Safety in Building
Пожарная безопасность в строительстве
Текст 1
Basic Principles of Fire Protection and Design against Fire
Fire hazard in buildings may be divided into internal, in the building itself, and
external, arising from a fire in adjoining property. The internal hazard may be subdivided
into danger to occupants of the building and damage to structure and
contents.
The basic principles of fire protection may be set out under three broad
headings:
- every building should be designed and constructed to reduce the risk of ignition
of any part of the building and the spread of fire inside the building, or into or out
of it;
- the parts of the building are required to withstand the effects of fire long
enough to avoid any structural collapse that would increase the risk of fire spread;
- the safety of the occupants within the building.
The fire safety problem concerns with some fire precautions. These precautions
must be considered at an early stage of the building design process. There are
some essential principles of fire design:
the building should be constructed from building materials that will not
contribute to the spread of fire;
there should be adequate provision to prevent an arson attack;
the building should be fitted with an appropriate automatic fire-alarm system;
all fire-protection systems should be installed by adequately trained specialists.
Fire safety engineer has two duties: to protect the lives and to safeguard
property within the building.
1. How is fire hazard in buildings divided?
2. What are the basic principles of fire protection?
3. When must fire precautions be considered?
4. Building materials shouldn’t contribute to the spread of fire, should they?
5. What should the building be fitted with?
6. What are the duties of fire safety engineer?
Текст 2
The History of Fire Prevention and Protection Abroad
We don't know for sure how the use of fire was discovered. But ever since man
has known fire, he has feared it too.
Historians record that in Rome in about 300 BC a band of slaves was given the
task of watching for fires from a top of a hill and of warning the citizens of fire.
Under Caesar Augustus the first municipal-type fire department appeared. The
command structure was almost identical to that is used by fire department today.
70
There were 7 squads that contained from 100 to 1000 men per squad. Each man
within each squad was given a particular task. Each squad had a supervising
officer.
William 1 of England decreed one of the first recorded fire prevention
regulations. The use of the open hearth for heating and cooking within houses
created a fire danger to such an extent that he ordered all fires be extinguished at
night and hearth covered.
King Richard 1 decreed that walls 16 feet high and 3 feet thick should be built
between the neighbouring buildings to prevent fire spread from one building to
another.
After September, 2, 1666 further changes in fire prevention regulations took
place. On that day the Great Fire of London began and burned for 5 days, leaving
373 acres of ashes. Following that fire the London City Council acted to prevent
similar fires. Legislation was passed that required all homes were to be rebuilt of
brick or stone.
Almost before the settlement of America began, there were serious setbacks
because of fire. The first permanent colony in Virginia was destroyed by fire and
then in 1623 the colony in Plymouth suffered by destructive fire. Several reasons
explain why fire was such a hazard in the early American colonies: building their
homes the English settlers used traditional building methods and materials of rural
England.
Benjamin Franklin in 1736 recommended the formation of a volunteer fire
company and served as the first fire chief in America.
On October, 9, 1871 a sweeping fire destroyed most of the city of Chicago. The
power of fire is a never-ending story: but the fight against fire is also a story worth
telling.
1. What task was given to a band of slaves in Rome?
2. When did the first municipal-type fire department appear?
3. What was the command structure of fire department?
4. Who decreed one of the first fire prevention regulations?
5. How did King Richard 1 try to prevent fire spread?
6. What happened to London in 1666?
7. Why was fire such a hazard in the early American colonies?
Текст 3
Fire Research Work and Training of Fire Safety Engineers
The first fire testing station was built in 1935 at Boreham Wood to test
elements of structure. This has grown into the present Fire Research Station as the
result of cooperation between the government and the insurance industry. Now the
station is one of the largest and best equipped in the world.
Aim of the Station is to improve methods of preventing and fighting fire. Work
is divided into five sections. In the operational research and intelligence section,
details of fires are coded and analyzed. The “ignition and growth of fire” section
71
studies the physical aspects of ignition, combustion and heat transfer.
Another section studies building materials under fire conditions to obtain basic
data for the design and protection of buildings. Tests are carried out on structural
elements. Results are used in advice given to architects, builders, structural
engineers and local authorities on appropriate types of structure and materials.
Two more sections deal with industrial fires and explosions involving gases,
vapors, dusts and unstable materials not classified as explosives and the properties
and methods of application of extinguishing agents – water, foam and dry powder.
Tests are also conducted on such equipment as automatic sprinkler systems, fire
extinguishers and automatic fire alarms.
In our country we can say we have the oldest Higher Educational centre in the
world training safety engineers.
The Moscow Institute of Fire Safety has accumulated a great deal of experience
in training specialists for fire protection at different levels.
There are the following faculties at the institute: the faculty of fire safety engineers
on the base of the general secondary education with five years period of training;
the faculty of fire safety engineers on the base of the secondary specialized
education with three years period of education; the faculty of training of leading
staff officers with year and a half period of training; a refresher course for fire
safety engineers with one month period of education; a post graduate and doctorate
courses.
About 130 professors and teachers well-known in Russia and in other countries
have been working at the institute. Annually about 550 specialists in Fire
Protection of the highest qualification graduate from the institute, the total number
of such specialists is more than 18000.
About 2000 fire safety engineers and researchers for fire service of Bulgaria,
Hungary, Viet-Nam, Germany, Guinea, Cuba, Moldavia, Poland, the Czech
Republic, Slovakia and other countries used to study at the institute.
The Moscow Institute of Fire Safety keeps in touch with many Fire Safety
Educational Establishments.
1. What was the aim of the first fire testing station and what is its purpose
nowadays?
2. How is work organized in the operational research and intelligence section?
3. What section studies the physical aspects of ignition and combustion?
4. Who are the results important for?
5. Who does the Institute of Fire Safety train?
6. How many specialists graduate from it annually?
72
III. Road Engineering
Дорожное строительство
Текст 1
Right-of-Way
The zone which is marked to lay the road is called the road zone or right-ofway.
The higher is the technical classification of the road, the wider is the right-ofway
for its construction. The road zone includes such parts of a road as a
carriageway, road shoulders, inner and outer slopes, and other parts.
The road surface strip within the limits of which motor vehicles run is called a
carriageway. Usually it is reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone
aggregates. These stone aggregates form the pavement.
The strips of the ground which adjoin the carriageway are called the road
shoulders. The shoulders render lateral support to the pavement. In future the
pavement will always be made of solid materials within the limits of the
carriageway.
To lay the carriageway at the required level above the ground surface a
formation or roadbed is constructed. It is constructed in the form of embankments
or cuttings with side ditches for drainage and the diversion of water.
The formation includes borrow pits – shallow excavations from which the soil
was used for filling the embankments. It also includes spoil banks. Spoil banks are
heaps of excessive soil remaining after the excavation of cuttings.
The carriageway and shoulders are separated from the neighbouring land by
slopes. The cuttings and side ditches have inner and outer slopes. The junction of
the surface of the shoulders and the embankment slope is called the edge of the
roadbed. The distance between the edges is called the width of the roadbed.
1. What is called the road zone or right-of-way?
2. What parts of a road does the road zone include?
3. What is called a carriageway?
4. Is the carriageway usually reinforced by means of natural or artificial stone
aggregates?
5. What is a roadbed constructed for?
6. What is called the edge of the roadbed?
7. What is called the width of the roadbed?
Текст 2
Pavement Structural Layers
To ensure all-year-round operation of vehicles traffic on a road, the
carriageway is covered with a pavement. The pavement is laid on the surface of
the roadbed. It can be rigid or semi-rigid structure. The pavement resists traffic
stresses and climatic factors.
73
The stresses induced in the pavement by motor vehicle wheels attenuate with
the depth. This enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer
structure. The pavement consists of the following layers: the surfacing, the
pavement base, the sub-base and the subgrade.
1. Surfacing is the upper and most rigid layer of the pavement. It is comparatively
thin, but resists well the abrasion and the impacts caused by the wheels, and also
the effect of weather conditions. Usually the surfacing is the most expensive part
of the pavement. Surfacing usually comprises two coats or courses – a course and
a wearing course.
2. Below the surfacing base coat is the pavement base, a strong bearing layer of
stony material or stone with a binding matrix. This layer is designed to distribute
the individual wheel-loads over the roadbed or sub-base. The pavement base is not
subjected to the direct action of automobile wheels.
3. The sub-base is a layer of earth or stone materials, resistant to moisture, inserted
when necessary between the pavement base and the roadbed. The sub-base reduces
the required thickness of the pavement base. The sub-base is made of gravel, slag,
soil treated with binding agents, sand, etc.
4. The subgrade comprises the thoroughly compacted upper layers of the roadbed,
upon which are laid the layers of the pavement.
1. What is the carriageway covered with a pavement for?
2. What structure can the pavement be?
3. What enables the pavement to be designed in the form of a multilayer structure?
4. How many courses does the surfacing comprise?
5. Where is the pavement base laid?
6. What is the pavement base designed for?
7. What does the subgrade comprise?
Текст 3
Side Ditches
For collecting water from the roadbed side ditches, flumes, interception ditches
and drain channeling can be used. Present road construction provides side ditches
parallel with the roadway. A side ditch is intended to collect the water discharged
by the crown. It also collects the water from the roadside. Water from the
adjoining land must be collected by the side ditch too. The side ditch discharges
into a natural outlet at the first opportunity.
Side ditches in cuttings and next to embankments may be excavated to a depth
of up to 0.6 m. These ditches are for the collection of water flowing off the road
surface and from adjoining land during rainfall or snow thawing. The side ditch
may contribute to the drainage of the subgrade because of the evaporation of
moisture from the side ditch inner slopes. However, the major use of the side ditch
is to permit the rapid discharge of water. When this water discharge is not ensured
and ponding occurs, the side ditch becomes a source from which water may
penetrate back under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade.
74
The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal. In the case of
impermeable soils and in less favorable conditions of runoff the side ditches can be
given a trapezoidal cross-section with a bottom width of 0.4 m and a depth of up to
0.7-0.8 m from the edge embankment. If the road must be built in dry country with
a rapid surface runoff, and the occurrence of ground water is deep, the side ditches
are given the shape of triangular flues of 0.3 m minimum depth. The V-typed side
ditch can be easily constructed and maintained with the blade grader. The V-typed
side ditch cannot be deep and, therefore, it is much safer than the trapezoidal side
ditch.
1. What is the side ditch intended to?
2. What does the side ditch discharge into?
3. Why may the side ditch contribute to the drainage of the subgrade?
4. What is the major use of the side ditch?
5. When does the side ditch become a source from which water may penetrate
back under the road, resulting in saturation of the subgrade?
6. The cross-section of the ditch is either V-typed or trapezoidal, isn’t it?
7. What machine can the side ditch be easily constructed and maintained with?
IV. Economy and Management
Экономика и управление
Текст 1
Personnel Management
The most valuable asset of any business is its people. Land, buildings, goods,
and equipment may dominate a balance sheet, but they do not make a business
successful: people do. The best businesses are the ones that have the best people
— capable, creative, energetic people. To attract them requires both ingenuity and
initiative on the part of an employer. But the payoff in productivity is worth it.
Staffing your business with the best people should be one of the highest priorities.
Staffing, leading and controlling are important functions of management. The
main aim of staffing is to fill and keep filled the positions in the organization
structure with competent people. It also involves selecting, hiring, promoting,
planning the career, compensating and training.
Many firms have a personnel department with personnel manager directly
responsible for coordinating activities of the employees.
Yet, whether or not there is a personnel department, all managers are responsible
for managing human resources.
1. What do business successful?
2. What functions of management are named?
3. What assets of a business are mentioned in the text?
4. Which of them is characterized as the most valuable? Why?
75
5. What does the term "to staff" mean?
6. Who is directly responsible for coordinating activities of the employees?
7. What people are responsible for personnel management in an organization?
Текст 2
Legal Forms of Business
Having decided to set up your own business, you should choose the legal form
it will take. There are three legal forms to choose from: sole proprietorship,
partnership and corporation (limited company). No one form is better than another.
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. The important thing is to be sure the
chosen form is best for you.
Many businesses are sole proprietorships, which mean that they are owned and
run by one person. Setting up a sole proprietorship is easy; it does not need many
formalities. As a sole trader, a person is fully responsible for the success or
failure of his / her business. Any profits go to the owner; any losses are his or her
responsibility as well. If losses become greater than the investment, the owner is
responsible for paying them, even if this touches all personal assets. This feature is
called unlimited liability.
There is no legal difference between the owner and the business. As the
business is personal to the owner, it is liquidated upon the death of the owner.
Finances for a sole trader are usually limited to his or her own savings or to what
can be borrowed from family or friends. Therefore sole proprietorships are usually
small businesses.
When a proprietor wants to expand a business, one way to do so is to form a
partnership, a business formed for profit by two or more co-owners. The rights and
duties of a partnership are regulated by laws and by a legal agreement made by the
partners. Usually an agreement states how much capital each partner has put up,
how profits will be shared, and how the business will be run between the partners.
All partners are legally responsible for any of the firm's activities, in other
words, each partner has unlimited liability, meaning that all partners are liable for
the debts of the business. They share the risks and the profits or losses associated
with their business.
A way to avoid the risks of unlimited liability is to form a limited partnership.
In a limited partnership there are two kinds of partners – general and limited.
General partners have unlimited liability for the business. The liability of limited
partners is limited to the amounts of their investments.
However, in exchange for this limited liability, limited partners are usually not
allowed to take an active part in the firm's management. There must be at least one
general partner in such kind of partnership.
1. What legal forms of business are described in the text?
2. How many people can own a sole proprietorship?
3. What liability has a sole trader for his / her business?
4. How can a person raise funds for setting up a new business?
76
5. What kind of business is partnership?
6. What is the liability of partners for running a usual partnership?
7. What kinds of partners are there in a limited partnership?
Текст 3
Pricing, Promotion, Distribution
Marketing management is an important function of a business. The marketing
manager is responsible for the totality of a company's market offering - the range
of products and their packaging, the prices charged, the discounts offered, the
communications media employed (television, press, personal salesmen, direct
mail, etc.), and the channels through which the product or service is delivered to
the customer (retailers, mail order, automatic vending, etc.). The activity of the
marketing manager determines whether or not the company meets its financial
objectives. The sale of products or services is normally the sole income generator
in a company while most remaining personnel solely incur costs.
Hence, marketing management must maintain continuous contact with those
colleagues in the company who are responsible for manufacturing the products or
providing the service for sale, and with those financial colleagues who are
responsible for controlling budgets, raising capital and distributing profits.
1. What is an important function of a business?
2. What is the range of duties of a marketing manager?
3. What determines the activity of the marketing manager?
4. Why is his/her activity vital for the company's financial standing?
5. What interdepartmental contacts are important for marketing managers?
6. What are financial managers responsible for?
7. Which channels are products or services delivered to the customer through?
V. Automation of Technological Processes
Автоматизация технологических процессов
Текст 1
The History of the Internet
The 1990s saw great changes in the way people communicate. People could
send mail without going to the post office, and go shopping without leaving home.
Words like e-mail and download became part of people's vocabulary. The cause of
this great change was the Internet.
The idea for the Internet began in the early 1960s in the United States. The
Department of Defense wanted to connect their computers together in order to
share private information. In 1969, the Arpanet (an early form of the Internet) first
connected computers at four American universities. One computer successfully
sent information to another. In 1972, scientists shared Arpanet with the world.
77
They created a way to send person-to-person messages using Arpanet. This was
the beginning of e-mail.
Over the next few years, there was a lot of progress made in the world of
computing, but most people were not using the Internet. Then, in the 1980s,
personal computers became more common. In the early 1990s, two important
things happened: the birth of the World Wide Web in 1991, and the creation of the
first Web browser in 1993. The Web made it easier to find information on the
Internet, and to move from place to place using links. The Web and browser made
it possible to see information as a web site with pictures, sound, and words.
Today, millions of people connect to the Internet to send e-mail, visit web sites,
or store information on servers. Computers are now an important part of our lives
and are changing how we learn, work, shop, and communicate.
1. What was the great change in people’s life?
2. How and where did the idea for the Internet begin?
3. What was an early form of the Internet?
4. What was the beginning of e-mail?
5. When was the birth of the World Wide Web?
6. How do millions of people use the Internet today?
7. How are computers changing our lives?
Текст 2
The Internet
The Internet, a global computer network which embraces millions of users all
over the world, began in the United States in 1969 as a military experiment. It was
designed to survive a nuclear war. Information sent over the Internet takes the
shortest path available from one computer to another. Because of this, any two
computers on the Internet will be able to stay in touch with each other as long as
there is a single route between them. This technology is called packet switching.
Owing to this technology, if some computers on the network are knocked out (by a
nuclear explosion, for example), information will just route around them.
The most popular Internet service is e-mail. Most of the people, who have
access to the Internet, use the network only for sending and receiving e-mail
messages.
In many developing countries the Internet may provide businessmen with a
reliable alternative to the expensive and unreliable telecommunication systems of
these countries. However there are still both commercial and technical problems
which will take time to be resolved.
The most important is security. When you send an e-mail message to
somebody, this message can travel through many different networks and
computers. The data is constantly being directed towards its destination by special
computers called routers. Because of this, it is possible to get into any of
computers along the route, intercept and even change the data being sent over the
Internet.
1. What is the Internet?
2. Where and when did the Internet begin?
3. What is called packet switching?
4. What is the most popular Internet service?
5. What is the most important problem with Internet?
6. Why is it possible to change the data being sent over the Internet?
7. How can you get into any of computers and change the data?
Текст 3
Going Online
All over the world, people are gaining access to the Internet. More and more
people are using computers to go online. This change has happened quickly. For
example, in 1997, there were fewer than eight million Internet users in Japan. Just
five years later, there were almost 65 million. During that same period, Internet use
around the world grew by 600%. The Internet is affecting many lives, and it is
changing how we communicate. But are these changes good or bad?
The Internet can be a great tool for communication. Everyone agrees on that.
People can use e-mail to keep in touch with family and friends whether they are far
away or just across town. Sending an e-mail message is quick, easy, and cheap.
People can also use the Internet to find new friends. Do you want to talk about
politics or sports or how to find true love? Go online! You will find people who
share your interests. Maybe you will make friends in distant places and learn about
other cultures. In many ways, the Internet can bring people together.
However, some people say that the Internet has the opposite effect. They claim
that it is leading to less communication, not more. These people believe that time
online means time alone. "The Internet is taking people away from their families
and friends," they say. "It draws people away from their communities, and that is
not good."
So, what is actually happening? Researchers are trying to find out. They are
studying the effects of the Internet on our lives. They are looking at the behaviour
of people who use it and people who do not. At this point, there are two basic ideas
about what is happening.
Some researchers who have done studies in the United States have bad news for
people who often go online. They report that people who use the Internet on a
regular basis are more often lonely and unhappy. They say that these people are
spending time at their computers instead of with other people, so they have less
active social lives.
Other researchers disagree. They describe other studies from the United States
and some from England. These show that people who often go online make more
connections with other people because they use the Internet to communicate. And
here is a surprise. According to these studies, frequent Internet users get in touch
more not just online but by phone and in person, too. They have busier social lives,
and they are usually happier. They also watch less TV.
79
Does going online affect everyone in the same way? Perhaps not. Perhaps the
effects of Internet use depend on a person's character. Psychologist Robert Kraut
thinks this is so. According to Kraut, the Internet allows social people to become
even, more social. It lets them get in touch with friends more easily, and they go
out more often. And people who are not social? They may use the Internet to avoid
others. They may like going online so that they don't have to talk to anyone.
However, this does not mean that the Internet is unhealthy for shy people. In fact,
the Internet can help shy people make friends. Researchers find that shy people
frequently communicate more easily online than face-to-face.
The Internet is changing how we communicate. Maybe you can see its effects
on your own life. It is less easy to see larger changes in our communities or around
the entire world, but changes are happening. It is something to think about.
1. Why do people use e-mail?
2. How does the Internet bring people together?
3. What the opposite effect does the Internet have?
4. Does going online affect everyone in the same way?
5. Why do shy people frequently communicate more easily online than face-toface?
6. How does the Internet influence your own life?
7. How do you prefer to get in touch with your friends just going online, by phone
or in person?
VI. Urban Construction and Utilities
Городское строительство
Текст 1
Acquiring Land for Industrial Construction
Recent trends in the real estate market show that increasing numbers of
manufacturers are looking to invest in the construction of new production plants
throughout Russia.
It is essential that the whole development process should be well planned and
professionally executed. The following points are especially important to consider.
Sufficient land plots for industrial construction may be difficult to find in the
vicinity of city centers and available transport routes. According to zoning
regulations, developers can either build production plants on land that is
designated for industrial purposes or obtain a permit to use agricultural land.
However, the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category may take up to
one year. It is forbidden to start construction on agricultural land regardless of any
rights to ownership or unofficial permits.
The developer must familiarize himself with the development plan of the area
where the land plot is located in order to confirm that no urban development is
planned.
Legal due diligence of the site is absolutely necessary to verify the land title,
80
especially in light of privatization issues.
During construction, the investor typically has the right to only a short-term
lease (1-3-5 years); however, after the title to the property is officially registered,
then the investor may sign a long-term lease (for a maximum of 49 years).
1. What do recent trends in the real estate market show?
2. What should be well planned and professionally executed?
3. Is it difficult to find sufficient land plots for industrial construction?
4. How much time may the transfer from the agricultural to industrial category
take?
5. Why must the developer familiarize himself with the development plan?
6. What is absolutely necessary to verify the land title?
7. Does the investor have the right to any term lease?
Текст 2
Allocation of Land for Construction Project
Land plots owned by the state or municipalities can be allocated for
construction projects under title or lease. Authorities may not refuse to issue land
titles to individuals or companies for construction purposes, unless: the land plots
are withdrawn from the market; a federal law prohibits land privatization; or the
land plots are reserved for state or municipal needs.
Land can be allocated for construction purposes with or without prior consent
for the location of the facilities to be constructed.
Prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed is required for
land plots to be leased out to commercial organizations. Prior consent is normally
required for investment in industrial projects in or outside populated areas in cases
where no town-planning documentation has been drawn up in relation to such
territories and no rules are in effect for land use and development. In such cases,
determination of the location of the industrial facilities to be constructed requires
thorough analysis of the environmental, architectural, sanitary and other
implications of the planned construction.
Municipalities in urban and rural areas are required to notify their inhabitants of
possible or forthcoming construction projects. In cases where the location of
buildings, structures or facilities affects the common interests of local residents,
decisions to proceed with the projects are to be made taking the opinion of the
local population into account.
Under the Land Code of the Russian Federation, land may be sold or leased out
for construction projects by competitive bidding only, with no requirement for
prior consent for the location of the facilities to be constructed. This procedure is
used primarily in cities where the executive authorities or municipalities allocate
land plots by tender or auction. Each land plot must be properly prepared for sale
or lease.
Prior consent is not required either in cases where a construction project is to be
located in a city or a rural populated area in accordance with town-planning
documents and rules regarding land use and development.
1. How can land plots be allocated?
2. May authorities refuse to issue land titles?
3. When is prior consent for the location of the facilities required?
4. What does determination of the location of the industrial facilities require?
5. Is the opinion of the local population taken into account?
6. In what cases isn't prior consent required?
Текст 3
Survey
The simplest and most commonly used method of measuring the distance
between two points on the ground is called chain surveying. Angles in surveying
are measured with special instruments called transit (теодолит). In its simplest
form the transit is a telescope mounted above a horizontal circular scale.
Route survey is a survey necessary for the location and construction of
transportation or communication lines such as highways railroads, canals,
transmission lines and pipe-lines. The preliminary work consists of a topographic
survey.
City surveying is the term frequently applied to the operation of laying out lots
and to the municipal surveys made in connection with the construction of streets,
water supply systems and sewers.
The maps and data produced by surveyors are used by civil engineers in many
ways. Before construction begins the exact position of the various parts of the
dam, or the track of the railway or road, are fixed on the ground by using normal
surveying methods. In choosing the site for a dam, for instance, an engineer can
study on a map the courses of all the rivers and streams in the area. By reading the
contours he can calculate the amount of water which can be stored by building a
dam of a given height in a certain place. In the same way the results of a soil
survey clearly marked on a map will give the engineer vital information about the
foundations. When deciding the route of a railway or road, the gradients, radii of
curves, heights of embankments and depth of cutting can be calculated from data
supplied by the surveyor.
Terrestrial photogrammetry or photographic surveying from ground stations
had been found to be a useful addition to other methods in mapping of
mountainous areas.
1. What is the simplest method of measuring the distance between 2 points on the
ground?
2. How are angles measured in surveying?
3. What is route survey necessary for?
4. What type of survey is made while constructing streets, water supply systems?
5. What should be done before constructing a dam?
6. How are survey data used in road building?
7. What surveying is useful in mountainous areas?
VII. Mechanical Engineering
Строительные и дорожные машины
Текст 1
Components of the Automobile
The automobile consists of three basic parts: the power plant, the chassis and
the body. The power plant or engine is the source of power that makes the car
wheels rotate and the car move. It includes the electric, fuel, cooling and
lubricating systems.
The chassis consists of a power train and a frame with axles, wheels and
springs. The chassis includes the brake system and the steering system as well.
The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels. It consists
of the clutch, the gear box, the propeller shaft, the rear axle, and the final drive,
etc.
The body has a hood, fenders and accessories: a heater, lights, a radio, a
windshield wiper, a convertible top raiser and so on. The body is designed to
contain and protect not only the engine and other car components, but it provides
protection to the occupants from wind, dust, cold, and rain as well.
To guide the car it is necessary to have some means of turning the front wheels,
so the car can be pointed in the direction required. The steering wheel in front of
the driver is connected by the gears and levels to the front wheels for this purpose.
The front wheels are on the pivots so they can be swung to the left or right.
The brakes are necessary to slow or stop the car. They are the most important
mechanisms on the car. Upon their proper work the safety and lives of people
riding in the car depend. Most braking systems are hydraulic. But many vehicles
now use power brakes.
The frame is the structural center of some vehicles. It provides support for
engine, body, wheels and power train members. It is usually made of U-shaped
sections. These U-shaped sections are carefully shaped and then welded or riveted
together. Cross members reinforce the frame and also provide support for the
engine and wheels. The frame is extremely rigid and strong. It can withstand the
shock blows, vibrations and other strains to which it is put on the road.
The engine is attached to the frame in three or four points. Noise and some
vibrations are inherent in engine operation. To prevent this noise the engine is
insulated from the frame by some form of a rubber pad at each point of support.
1. What does the automobile consist of?
2. What does the power plant include?
3. What does the chassis consist of?
4. The power train carries the power from the engine to the car wheels, doesn’t it?
5. What is the body designed for?
6. What is it necessary to guide the car?
7. Are the brakes the most important mechanisms on the car?
Текст 2
Components of Tractors
Nowadays tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry. In agriculture
tractors are used in such jobs as plowing, planting, cultivating, fertilizing,
harvesting, transport works, etc.
In different branches of industry tractors are used as road transport tractors
hauling heavy loads. They are also used for different building purposes.
Tractors may be agricultural tractors, road transport tractors and special
tractors.
Agricultural tractors are subdivided into: the general tractors designed for
hauling agricultural machinery; cultivators designed for specific agricultural jobs;
tractors for operation on soft boggy ground.
Road transport tractors are equipped with a load carrying platform.
Special tractors are usually equipped with auxiliary devices. Tractors may belong
either to wheeled-type tractors or to track-laying type tractors.
The construction of a tractor includes the following main units:
1. Power unit which includes the engine with all auxiliary devices – a radiator, a
fan, a starter device, a fuel tank, a pump, etc.
2. Transmission which consists of a clutch, a speed control unit, universal joints,
gearing mechanisms, shafts, steering mechanisms, a final drive, axles.
3. Driver which includes driving, supporting and controlling mechanisms.
4. A steering unit.
5. The tractor frame.
6. Working and auxiliary equipment.
Tractor engines have internal combustion engines as the source of power.
Tractor engines requirements differ considerably from the requirements of the
automotive engines. Automotive engines are generally unsuitable for tractors.
1. Tractors are widely used in agriculture and in industry, aren’t they?
2. What jobs are tractors used in agriculture for?
3. How may all tractors be classified?
4. What groups are agricultural tractors subdivided into?
5. What are road transport tractors equipped with?
6. What are special tractors usually equipped with?
7. What type may tractors belong to?
Текст 3
Principal Mechanism of Crawler-Mounted Tractors
The various types of tractors in use today have an almost identical transmission
system. They consist of four main groups of mechanisms mounted on the main
frame. They are:
1. The power unit, including the engine and all its accessories.
2. The power train, comprising the engine clutch, the propeller shaft, the
transmission, the center drive, steering clutches with brakes and the final drive.
The power train transmits torque from the engine to tractor tracks.
3. The crawler running gear, including the chain, drive sprockets, the idler, truck
wheels and support rollers and a suspension. The suspension connects the tractor
frame to the running gear.
4. Controls, consisting of the steering clutch, brakes, and mechanisms controlling
fuel feed.
In addition, the tractor carries the hood, the cab and fuel tanks.
Tractors are usually steered by friction clutches mounted on the live axle after the
center drive. These clutches, known as steering clutches, consist of a number of
friction disks.
The weight of the tractor is transmitted to the ground through support rollers
which run on the track. They are connected with the tractor frame by a suspension.
The suspension damps shocks when the tractor moves on uneven ground.
Disconnecting one of the steering clutches, partly or completely, reduces the
speed of rotation of the corresponding sprocket and its track. And the tractor will
turn towards the side of the sprocket lagging behind.
Small-radius turns cannot be made by slowing down one sprocket using the
steering clutches. Therefore, the tractor controls include a special device for
stopping the free track by means of special brakes, which act upon the driven parts
of the steering clutches.
A tractor going down a slope is braked and stopped by using the same brakes
applied to both tracks simultaneously.
1. What is the main feature of the various types of tractors in use today?
2. What do crawler-mounted tractors consist of?
3. What mechanisms does the power unit include?
4. What mechanisms does the power train comprise?
5. What is the function of the power train?
6. What mechanisms does the crawler running gear include?
7. What do controls consist of?
VIII. Building Materials
Строительные материалы
Текст 1
The House
Man has always been a builder. The kind of house he built depended upon the
climate, upon his enemies, and upon the building materials at hand. The first
houses in many parts of the world were made of wood, for in those days the
greater part of the Earth was covered with forests.
In other regions the most convenient building material was stone. Men began
building houses out of stone very long ago. Although they were built without
cement, the remains of a few of them still exist.
The ancient Egyptians built very simple houses, by present standards. Having
dried the bricks in the sun, they put up four walls, and above these they placed a
flat roof. The roof was flat because there was very little rain in Egypt. Although
their buildings were simple in construction, the Egyptian art of building was very
beautiful.
In ancient Russia architecture flourished for the first time in Kiev Russ. The
churches of that time were strong buildings with thick walls and small windows.
Buildings of the 19-th century are characterized by the use of new materials and
by a great diversity of architectural styles. From the end of the 18-th century iron
and steel became widely used as alternatives to wood.
The 20-th century is notable for widespread use of steel - reinforced concrete.
Architecture of the 20-th century is characterized by very high buildings -
particularly skyscrapers - and by great diversity of styles which completely differ
from those of the past.
1. What were the first houses made of?
2. The ancient Egyptians built very complex houses, didn't they?
3. Where did Russian architecture flourish for the first time?
4. What are buildings of the 19-th century characterized by?
5. When did reinforced concrete appear?
6. What is the main peculiarity of the 20-th century buildings?
Текст 2
Egyptian Pyramids
Architecture is the art which makes buildings beautiful to look at as well as
useful. There have been many different styles or kinds of architecture in the past
and there are many different styles today in different parts of the world.
Houses are built for dwelling; large buildings are constructed for industrial
purposes; theatres, museums, public and scientific institutions are built for cultural
activities of the people.
Primitive stone structures, huts and tents are the earliest types of human
dwellings. The oldest monuments which are met within architecture are the
colossal pyramids of Egypt most of which were constructed about 6,000 years ago.
The pyramids are large triangular buildings which were placed over the tombs of
Egyptian kings. The best known of the pyramids are a group of three built at Giza
south of Cairo. The largest of these is 482 feet high. The country was rich in hard
and durable stone, but poor in timber and metal, so that the main material used for
construction was granite, and this was the reason for the durability of the
pyramids. Large blocks of stone were transported over long distances by land and
water, and placed into position with the help of the most primitive equipment.
1. What are the purposes of different buildings?
2. Primitive stone structures were the earliest types of dwellings, weren’t they?
3. What are the oldest monuments met within architecture?
4. What kind of buildings are pyramids?
5. Was timber or stone the main material used for construction in Egypt?
6. How were large blocks of stone transported and placed?
Текст 3
Some Building Professions
Builders construct and reconstruct residential and industrial buildings, bridges,
schools, museums, theatres, hospitals. They build tunnels, power stations, dams. A
lot of people work together to make the house. Civil engineers and architects have
a common aim – to create something which will serve the purpose for which it is
built.
A man who designs buildings and makes the plans for them is called an
architect. He has to think not only of what he wants the building to look like when
it is finished, but also what it is to be used for. He must not forget the sort of
material to be used in the building. This may be stone, brick, wood or steel and
concrete. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, for example
what loads different materials may safely carry - so that there will be no danger of
his building falling down. He must need some knowledge of sculpture, painting,
design, geography, city planning, etc. The structure an architect creates should
give us pleasure, a sense of beauty.
Civil engineer specializes in the building of industrial or dwelling construction.
He is engaged to prepare the plans and specifications and to supervise the
construction of the project. Civil engineer must provide people with all modern
conveniences, such as running water, gas, electricity, central heating, while a
sanitary engineer protects the quality of water by purifying it.
Builders assemble a house from prefabricated units which are delivered to the
construction site. A welder then welds the units to hold them in place. The men of
many other building professions take part in building construction. The
stonemason builds the foundation. The bricklayer builds the walls and other parts
made of bricks. The carpenter erects door and window frames. The plaster makes
walls and ceilings smooth. The slater is employed for putting slates or tiles on the
roof. The plumber lays pipes to carry clean water into the house and waste water
away to the sewers. The electrician runs electric wires and the glazier puts glass in
the window frames.
1. What do builders construct and reconstruct?
2. What aim do civil engineers and architects have?
3. Who is called an architect?
4. An architect must know many facts concerning materials, mustn't he?
5. What are the functions of civil engineer?
6. Who builds the walls?
7. Who is responsible for the water in the house?
IX. Heating and Ventilation
Отопление и вентиляция
Текст 1
Air Conditioning
The term air conditioning has been widely and loosely used, it includes any
ventilation system with fan and heater. True air conditioning involves means for
warming and humidifying air in winter and for cooling and dehumidifying in
summer. Air conditioning is finding an ever widening application in industry.
Accurate control of atmospheric conditions is very important for industrial
processes. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost. Complex systems
are finding their application in air conditioning of a multi-storey office block,
factory, cinema or theatre.
For many years air has been introduced into buildings after heating,
dehumidifying and in some cases, cooling it. And we have called that process
ventilation. In recent years much greater stress has been laid on the treatment of air
and we call the process air conditioning. Air conditioning systems are divided into
three types - winter, summer and complete. Winter air conditioning includes
cleaning, heating, humidifying and circulating of air. It is finding its application in
offices, auditoriums, schools and residences. Summer air conditioning includes
cleaning, cooling, dehumidifying and circulating of air. The people are using
summer air conditioning in stores.
Complete air conditioning involves winter and summer functions. It is used in
theatres, large department stores. Each type of air conditioning depends upon the
climatic conditions.
Developments of the last twenty years have changed our conception of air
conditioning. Air conditioning is required for offices, department stores, hospitals,
hotels and dwelling houses. But the techniques of air conditioning have not kept
pace with the increasing demand. The cost of an air conditioning system influences the
cost of the building, as it needs the additional height and floor areas to mount this air
conditioning system.
Some efforts have been made to reduce the space occupied by air conditioning
systems. But they have not been definitive, except some methods that have been used
for many years. Air conditioning is rapidly being adopted in passenger ships and
automobiles. Car heaters have been employed for some time. But recently new
equipment has been designed to maintain car interiors at a comfortable temperature
in summer and winter.
1. What term includes any ventilation system with fan and heater?
2. Air conditioning systems vary in complexity and cost, don’t they?
3. What has much greater stress been laid on in recent years?
4. Where is air conditioning finding application?
5. What does the cost of an air conditioning system influence?
6. Where is air conditioning being adopted?
7. What has new equipment been designed for?
Текст 2
Systems of Heating
The number of different heating systems is almost unlimited. Various systems of
heating are being used at the present day. They are: direct, indirect, water heating
systems, steam heating systems and so on.
A direct system is that in which the fuel is consumed in the room. It is being
used for intermittent heating, or for heating isolated rooms. An indirect system is
that in which the fuel is consumed outside the room. In this system the heat is being
conveyed to the room by a medium such as steam or hot water. Indirect system is
being used for the continuous heating of a number of rooms or large buildings. It
begins from one central source and that’s why it is named Central Heating.
Steam heating systems are classified according to the following features: piping
arrangement, pressure or vacuum conditions, obtained in operation and method of
returning condensate to the boiler. A steam heating system is known as a one-piping
and two-pipe system. In one-piping system a single main supplies steam to the
heating unit and conveys condensate from it. In two-pipe system each heating unit is
being provided with two piping connections. Steam and condensate flow in separate
branches. Steam heating systems are classified as high pressure, low pressure
(vapour) and vacuum systems. This classification depends on the pressure
conditions under which the system is designed to operate. The system is known as a
gravity return system. Condensate is returned to the boiler by gravity. All heating
units are being elevated above the water line of the boiler.
1. What systems of heating are used at the present day?
2. What heating is the direct system used for?
3. What heating is the indirect system used for?
4. How are steam heating systems classified?
5. What do you know about one-piping system?
6. What do you know about two-pipe system?
7. What can you say about gravity return system?
Текст 3
Modern Heating and Ventilation
Ventilation means the circulation of air without any treatment. Ventilation is used
where the cost of air conditioning is not justified. Ventilation may be natural or
mechanical. Natural ventilation is due to the action of wind through wall openings
and the updraft caused by the difference in temperature between indoors and
outdoors. The limiting factors in natural ventilation are usually cold weather
conditions and the availability of heat. Buildings with small floor areas are ventilated
by natural means. Natural ventilation has the advantage of being cheap to install.
Mechanical or artificial ventilation is used for theatres, factories, large public halls
and other buildings with large floor areas. Artificial ventilation may be classified
as follows: exhaust ventilation, plenum ventilation and some combination of the
above mentioned systems.
Heating and ventilation may be required to provide comfortable conditions for
people and for industrial processes. Both are necessary and should be considered
together. But the design of each must be treated separately. Heating and ventilation
of buildings by electrical methods are finding their application nowadays. These
methods have the advantage of being quick in construction. They are suitable for
buildings of all sizes and types. Small rooms can be adequately heated with
electric fires. Tubular heaters are used for rooms where the temperature must be
maintained for long periods. These heaters are usually fixed to the walls near the
floor. Not long ago electrically heated panels were developed. On these the heating
elements are mounted behind metal panels. The heating of rooms by means of
large warmed panels is named panel heating or radiant heating.
Electric heaters play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large
buildings. The air enters the building through the ventilation ducts and passes over
electric heaters. They raise the temperature of the passing air and give comfort to
the people.
1. What does term ventilation mean?
2. What can heating and ventilation be required to provide?
3. Must the design of heating and ventilation be treated separately?
4. What methods of heating and ventilation are widespread?
5. What is the advantage of electric methods?
6. What is used to maintain the temperature for long periods?
7. Electric heaters do not play a large part in the air conditioning plants of large
buildings, do they?
X. Water Supply and Water Disposal
Водоснабжение и водоотведение
Текст 1
Purification
The water industry provides drinking water and wastewater services (including
sewage treatment) to households and industry, water purification facility.
In the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local
rivers and streams. The processes generally employed in making water safe for
water supply include coagulation, filtration, and disinfection. Water from some
sources must be treated also for the removal of color, taste, and odor. Coagulation
is commonly effected by adding to the water a salt of aluminum (usually
aluminum sulphate) or ferric iron. A precipitate forms and causes a clumping of
the bacteria and other foreign particles which then settle out during the several
hours of sedimentation. In this way 85% or more of the bacteria and suspended
particles can be removed.
Activated carbon is sometimes added before sedimentation to remove tastes and
odors. In the process of filtration the water is allowed to pass through layers of fine
sand to remove remaining germs and particles. Chlorine is commonly used to
destroy harmful bacteria persisting in a municipal water supply after the other
treatments. Chlorine dioxide has more recently been found effective as a destroyer
of bacteria as well as a means of removing unwanted tastes and odors. Other
means of destroying germs include the use of ozone and of ultraviolet light. Some
water supplies are aerated, i.e., exposed to the action of air and sunlight either
through sprays or by running over coarse gravel; taste and odor are improved and
some germs are destroyed.
1. What does the water industry provide?
2. What do the processes generally employed in making water safe for water
supply include?
3. What must be treated for the removal of color, taste, and odor?
4. Why is activated carbon added before the sedimentation?
5. What has been found effective as a destroyer of bacteria as well as a means of
removing unwanted tastes and odors?
6. What are ozone and ultraviolet light used for?
7. When are taste and odor improved and some germs destroyed?
Текст 2
Water Supply
Water is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all
known forms of life. All known forms of life depend on water. Humans require
water that does not contain too many impurities.
The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or
as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water
to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free
enterprise are best to manage this rare resource and to finance the boring of wells
or the construction of dams and reservoirs. Water supply facilities include for
example water wells cisterns for rainwater harvesting, water supply network, water
purification facilities, water tanks, water towers, water pipes including old
aqueducts. Atmospheric water generator is in development. Drinking water is
often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells.
Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more
water, assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are
rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified
for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances,
dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with
sand which only removes undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill
harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques
exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a
more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.
1. What is a common chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all
known forms of life?
2. How is the distribution of drinking water done?
3. What do water supply facilities include?
4. Building more wells in adequate places is a possible way to produce more water,
isn’t it?
5. What must be purified for human consumption?
6. What does filtering with sand remove?
7. Where is desalination of abundant ocean or seawater used?
Текст 3
Sewerage
The problem of protecting natural water resources has grown very pressing for
many countries since the beginning of the second half of the 20th century. The
development of human society, the growth of civilization and social and technical
progress have resulted in the changing of the composition of natural water
resources. The rivers, lakes and ground-waters contain today the products of
mechanical, chemical and biological pollution.
The waste products that result from the daily activities in a community are of
two general types: the liquid waste, known as sewage and the solid wastes, known
as refuse. The different wastes are the following: the wastes from lavatories, baths,
sinks, and laundry tanks in residences, institutions, and business buildings; wastes
from various types of manufacturing or industrial plants, and the surface run-off
from storms or street-flushing operations.
Sewage may also be divided according to its source into the following three
classes. The sewage from institutions and business buildings is called domestic
sewage, sanitary sewage or house sewage; that resulting from manufacturing or
industrial processes is known as industrial waste; and that from run-off during
storms is called storm sewage. A combination of domestic sewage, industrial
waste water is called combined sewage. The removal of all kinds of sewage is
usually accomplished by means of sewers. The sewers are placed in the streets
below the ground surface. The general process of removing sewage is designated
as sewerage and the entire system of sewers including a sewage treatment plant is
known as a sewerage system.
In conclusion it should be stressed that with the growth of population many
modern treatment systems have been built and much more is still to be done in this
field.
1. When has the problem of protecting natural water resources grown?
2. What have resulted in the changing of the composition of natural water
resources?
3. The rivers, lakes and ground waters contain today the products of mechanical,
chemical and biological pollution, don’t they?
4. What waste products do you know?
5. What is called domestic sewage, sanitary sewage or house sewage?
6. What is known as industrial waste?
7. What is called combined sewage?
Oral Topics
Student’s Life
My name is Vladimir Petrov. I was born on the 2-nd of April 1986. I am twenty
three years old. I'm from Russia. I am a first-year student of Voronezh State
University of Architecture and Civil Engineering. I study at the correspondence
department.
Here are some words about my student's life.
The academic year is divided into two terms from September till January and from
February till July. Twice a year at the end of each term students have sessions when
they take several exams and credit tests.
Students are divided into academic groups. There are 30 students in each as a
rule. Every group elects a monitor. The monitor is responsible for the group.
Students attend lectures and practical classes at the university. They study
different subjects such as: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Computers'
Technology, Economics, Concrete Structures, Theoretical and Structural Mechanics,
Strength of Materials, Geodesy, Hydrology, Water Supply and Disposal Systems,
Heat and Gas Supply, Building Materials, Automobile Roads and Aerodromes,
Economics and Management in Civil Engineering, Humanities and Foreign
Languages. During lectures they take notes. At practical classes and seminars they
discuss the material of the lectures.
Students read up for lectures, and seminars at the library or at home. They work
hard, so they have little free time. But when they have it, they try to amuse
themselves somehow: they listen to music, watch TV, read books, visit their friends,
and go to the theatre or to the cinema. They also go in for sports.
In conclusion I'd like to say that student’s life is very important and interesting.