20. Phraseological units: definition and characteristic features.

To carry corals to Newcastle.

In order to define a phraseologic unit we have to use the criteria of structural and semantic stability.

We shall analyze two context with the word combination “to carry corals to Newcastle”

EG: 1) Why are you taking this book with you?

I have it at home. It is carrying corals to Newcastle.

2) The ship is carrying corals to Newcastle

In the second context “to carry…” is a free word combination. Each of the words is used in direct meaning.

The first example is more difficult, because the meaning of the “coils” is new: to take smth to a place, where it is not needing. In other words, the meanings of the components is changed.

We have used the semantic criteria. In phrasiological units, words loose their semantic independents and phraseological units are not created in speech. They exist in the system of the lang., they are ready to be used in speech.

In this sense of semantic cohesion, phraseological units are very much words. EG: И оглянуться не успеешь = скоро; to cut smb dead = to ignore smb.

In free word combinations don’t loose the semantic independence and free word combinations are created in speech.

According to the second criterion the structural one, words can’t be replaced or changed in a phraseological unit according to our wish, EG: if we say “to carry corles to London” it won’t a phraseological unit.

So, a phraseological unit may be defined as a stable word combination with a completely ar partially transferred meaning.

21. Principles of classification of phraseological units and their origin.

There are several classification of phraseological units. One of them was worked out by acad. Vinogradov. This classification is based on the semantic principle, that is on the degree of the semantic cohesion of the elements.

There are three groups in his classification:

1) Phraseological combination (сочетания) They are very close to free word combinations as they have one of the words used in its direct meaning. EG: to break a promise – нарушить обещание “to break” is used in transferred meaning, “promise” is used in direct meaning.

This word combination are motivated, there combinability is limited.

EG: we can say in English: to set smb free – освободить кого-либо

but we can’t say: to set smb. at freedom – выпустить на свободу.

2) Phraseological Unities EG: to skate of thin ice – рисковать; to sit on the fence – выжидать; a big bug – важная шишка.

In such phrasiological unitie the meaning of the whole is not the sum of the direct manings of the components, but it is the meaning, that understood from the transformed (change) meaning of the compounents. The metaphors is clear.

3) Fusions (сращения) EG: to be at sixes and sevens – быть в беспорядке, в разбросе; a fish story – выдумка.

Such phraseological units have completely transferd meaning. They are not motivated and the metaphor on which the changed of meaning is waste is not clear. EG: there was a time when sum of the fusion were motivated; to cut off with a shilling – лишить наследства.

Prof. Smirnickiy offered another classification system. In it he tried to combine the structural and the semantic principles. Phraseological units are grouped according to their semantics.

There are two groups in this classification:

1.) one-summit (одновершинные) phras. units, which have one meaningful element. EG to give up – отказаться; to make out – разобрать; to pull out – вытаскивать.

Nowdays, Russian linguist don’t refer such word combination to phraseological units. They are called set-phrases

2.) two-summit and multi-summit, which have 2 or more meaningfull elements. EG: first night – премьера;

In this classification its interesting to see the correlation of the syntetic and semantic center of the combination.

EG: to give (syntactic center) up (semantic center)

their origin.

There are several sources of phraseological units. One of them is the development of cultural and economical spheres of life.

Phraseological units may come from the following spheares:

1. From engeniring and technology.

EG: to let off steam – дать волю чувствам

2. From agro-cultural:

EG to put the plough before the oxen – начать не с того конца.

3. from sea-travelling business:

EG: to be in low waters – быть на мели

4. from trade and commerce:

EG: into bargain – в придачу.

National customs and traditions, also give rise to phraseological units:

EG: by hook or by crook – любыми средствами.

A great many phras. units come from the words of Greek and Latin classics from the Bible and from myths and legends. EG: the apple of discord – яблоко раздора.

the common figure of such phrasiological units is that they can be easily translated from one language to another. EG: a wolf in sheep closing - волк в овечьей шкуре.

Such units are call international phrasiological units. As for national ones they are not easely translated into another language. They are translated as a rule by a free word combination.

EG: RUS>ENG: филькина грамота – a useless sheet of paper; глухая тетеря – a deaf person

ENG>RUS: rank and file – рядовой человек; in a trice – очень быстро