If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

Отруйні води ненависті клекотали довкола Кетлін. здіймалися

вище й вище, підступали бо грудей, до шиї. хапали в свої мертві

стиски, не давали дихати, не давали .жити.

Чорне озеро ярмарку вливається cm пум ком в каплицю: одні

йдуть, другі виходять.

У розлогому полумиску долиті, що по самі віния затекла сонием.

Шіоброоиться. вирує ярмарок. 3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or ac­cording to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as sim­ple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor con­sists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

22. Metonymy (classification, examples).

Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object. Metonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of conti­guity of the two objects.

Assigned features. As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns, less fre­quently - by substantivized numerals. That is why the syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject, object and predicative.

Classification. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine). Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings: table's leg, teapots nose, a hand (instead of a worker), the press (instead of people writing for newspapers), grave (instead of death), the cradle (instead of infancy), etc. Such metonymic meanings are registered in dictio naries. It is obvious that lexical metonymy is devoid of stylistic information. Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech. It is fresh and expressive:

This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel. Communicative functions. Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out

this or another feature of the object described, and makes speech eco­nomical. More examples:

The sword is the worst argument in a situation like that.

The other voice shook his head and went away.

The messenger was followed by a pair of heavy boots.

The fish swallowed her death and the float went down.

I wish you had Gary's ears and Jack's eves.

Linda gave her heart to the grocer's young man.

Окуляри сьогодні були дуже прискіпливі: на зборах дивилися

суворо як на молодий ентузіазм, так і на обачливу старість.

Язик до Києва доведе.

Нам треба більше робочих рук.

Чого ти, чуєш, розсівся перед моїми літами, перед моїм смутком

і сивиною?

А повз неї тупали тисячі ніг, дихали тисячі грудей, ревіли баси і

танцювали, як божевільні, дзвони.

> metonymy

• Metonymy can be seen as a specific kind of symbolism by which the most essential component of the subject is abstracted to represent it. This component acts as a single symbol for something larger and usually more complex.

• For instance, a crown is the most essential material component of the trappings of royalty, and so it serves well in representing the whole sys­tem of monarchy.

• Similarly, the stage is a material component of acting as a profession. This too serves to represent symbolically something abstract and dynamic.

• The 'cloth' symbolises the religious profession, and the 'bar' represents the legal profession. Both these items are essential material objects and are used to refer to the abstract concept of a profession.

• In a statement such as 'Shakespeare depicts monarchs as human' the name is actually symbolising the total collection of his works. This form of metonymy is useful as a very graphic kind of shorthand.

• This pragmatic explanation could also apply to the example of 'Whitehall announced today ...', although we could ascribe more political and even ulterior functions to this usage. [Remember, 'Whitehall' represent the civil service in the UK.]

• To refer to Whitehall as having issued a statement is to generalise the source of the communication. This may be in the political interest of the Establishment. It is a form of social control to promote an image of a corporate mass of civil servants, rather than suggesting that one per­son or even a small hierarchical group makes significant and powerful

decisions.

• Whitehall as a material location stands for something abstract, in this case an institution. This symbolic use depersonalises the source of the statement, perhaps thereby giving it more authority.

• This political interpretation is merely speculation, but the mechanical anal­ysis of metonymy as a symbolic device stands on firmer ground.

• [Pedants who collect terms enjoy distinguishing metonymy from synech-doche, which is its figurative bedfellow.]