Inquiry as an example of constructivist teaching:

Dewey described the basic inquiry learning format in 1910. There have been many adaptations of this strategy, but the teacher usually presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem, collect data to test the hypotheses, draw conclusions, and reflect on the original problem and on the thinking processes needed to solve it. Like discovery learning, inquiry methods require great preparation, organization, and monitoring to be sure everyone is engaged and challenged.

A second example of constructivist teaching influenced by Vygotsky's theories of assisted learning is called cognitive apprenticeships. There are many models, but most share six features:

• Students observe an expert (usually the teacher) model the performance.

• Students get external support through coaching or tutoring (including hints, feedback, models, reminders).

• Conceptual scaffolding (in the form of outlines, explanations, notes, definitions, formulas, procedures, etc.) is provided and then gradually faded as the student becomes more competent and proficient.

• Students continually articulate their knowledge - putting into words their understanding of the processes and content being learned.

• Students reflect on their progress, comparing their problem solving to an expert's performance and to their own earlier performances.

• Students are required to explore new ways to apply what they are learning - ways that they have not practiced at the professional's side.

1.5. Conceptions of Foreign Language Teaching

As with teaching in general, language teaching can be conceived in many different

ways, for example as a science, a technology, a craft, or an art. Different views of language teaching

lead to different views as to what the essential skills of teaching are, and different approaches to the

preparation of teachers. Zahorik (1986) classifies conceptions of teaching into three main categories:

• Science-Research conceptions,

• Theory-Philosophy conceptions, and

• Art-Craft conceptions.

Science-Research Conceptions

They are derived from research and are supported by experimentation and empirical investigation. Zahorik includes the following as examples of Science-Research conceptions.

• operationalizing learning principles,

• following a tested model,

• doing what effective teachers do,

Operationalizing learning principles

Research on memory, transfer, motivation, and other factors believed to be important in learning.

• Mastery learning and Programmed Learning

• Audiolingualism,

• Task-Based Language Teaching, and

• Learner Strategy Training

Following a tested model of teaching

“A view of good teaching is developed through logical reasoning and previous research;

good teaching is defined in terms of speeific acts” (Zahorik, 1986, 21);

• theories of good teaching across both regular and ESL classrooms is research on teachers’ question patterns and wait time-Teachers’ question use and wait-time before and after training were measured, and “it was found that the training modules affected teaching behaviors, and that the new behaviors affected student participation patterns in ways believed to be significant for these students’ language acquisition” (Long 1984:vi).

Doing what effective teachers do

Effective teachers are typically defined as those whose students perform better on standardized achievement tests.

• In a summary of research of this kind (Blum, 1984: 3-6) 12 characteristics of effective teaching were identified:

1. Instruction is guided by a preplanned curriculum.

2. There are high expectations for student learning.

3. Students are carefully oriented to lessons.

4. Instruction is clear and focused.

5. Learning progress is monitored closely.

6. When students don’t understand, they are retaught.

7. Class time is used for learning.

8. There are smooth and efficient classroom routines.

9. Instructional groups formed in the classroom fit instructional needs.

10. Standards for classroom behavior are high.

11. Personal interactions between teachers and students are positive.

12. Incentives and rewards for students are used to promote excellence.