III. How Do Non-Scientists Gather Information?

We all observe our world and make conclusions. HOW de we do this:

1) seek an authority figure - teacher tells you facts...you believe them. Is this such a good idea?

For example, if your teacher tells you that there is a strong body of evidence suggesting that larger brains = greater intelligence.

2) intuition - discussed in previous chapter.

Are women are more romantic then men? Is cramming for an exam is the best way to study?

Whatever you opinion, do you have data to support your OPINIONS about these questions???

Luckily, there is a much better path toward the TRUTH...the Scientific Method.

IV. The Scientific Method

How do we find scientific truth? The scientific method is NOT perfect, but it is the best method available today.

To use the scientific method, all topics of study must have the following criteria:

1) must be testable (e.g., can you test the existence of god?)

2) must be falsifiable - easy to prove anything true (depends on situation), but systematically demonstrating a subject matter to be false is quite difficult (e.g., can you prove that god does not exist?)

A. Goals of the Scientific Method

Describe, Predict, Select Method, Control, Collect Data, Analyze, Explanation

1) Description - the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or individual. Helps us to be systematic and consistent.

This stage sets the stage for more formal stages - here we acquire our topic of study and begin to transform it from a general concept or idea into a specific, testable construct.

a) Operational Definitions - the definition of behaviors or qualities in terms of how they are to be measured. Some books define it as the description of ...the actions or operations that will be made to measure or control a variable.

Examples:

How can you define "life change"? One possibility is the score on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale.

How do you define obesity, abnormality, etc. in a way that is testable and falsifiable?

2) Prediction - here we formulate testable predictions or HYPOTHESES about behavior (specifically, about our variables). Thus, we may define a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. For example, one may hypothesize that as alcohol consumption increases driving ability decreases.

Hypotheses are usually based on THEORIES - statements which summarize and explain research findings.

3) Select Methodology & Design - chose the most appropriate research strategy for empirically addressing your hypotheses.

4) Control - method of eliminating all unwanted factors that may effect what we are attempting to study (we will address in more detail later).

5) Collect Data - although the book is a little redundant and does not differentiate well between this stage and selecting the design and method, data collection is simply the execution and implementation of your research design.

6) Analyze & Interpret the Data - use of statistical procedures to determine the mathematical and scientific importance (not the "actual" importance or meaningfulness) of the data. Were the differences between the groups/conditions large enough to be meaningful (not due to chance)?

Then, you must indicate what those differences actually mean...discovery of the causes of behavior, cognition, and physiological processes.

7) Report/Communicate the Findings - Psychology is a science that is based on sharing - finding answers to questions is meaningless (to everyone except the scientist) unless that information can be shared with others. We do this through publications in scientific journals, books, presentations, lectures, etc.

B. Ways of Conducting Scientific Research

1) Naturalistic Observation - allow behavior to occur without interference or intervention by the researcher.

we all do this (people watch)

weaknesses: often not easy to observe without being intrusive.

strengths: study behavior in real setting - not lab.

2) Case Study - in depth investigation of an individual's life, used to reconstruct major aspects of a person's life. Attempt to see what events led up to current situation.

Usually involves: interview, observation, examine records, & psych. testing.

weaknesses: very subjective. Like piecing together a puzzle, often there are gaps - relies on memory of the individual, medical records, etc.

strengths: good for assessing psychological disorders - can see history and development.

3) Survey - either a written questionnaire, verbal interview, or combination of the two, used to gather information about specific aspects of behavior.

weaknesses: self-report data (honesty is questionable)

strengths: gather a lot of information in a short time.

gather information on issues that are not easily observable.

4) Psychological Testing - provide a test and then score the answers to draw conclusions from.

Examples. - I.Q. tests, personality inventories, S.A.T., G.R.E., etc...

weaknesses: validity is always a question; honesty of answers.

strengths: can be very predictive and useful if valid.

5) Experimental Research (only way to approach Cause & Effect) - method of controlling all variables except the variable of interest which is manipulated by the investigator to determine if it affects another variable.