78) Kazakhstan as a zone of ecological crisis (1949-1989). Semipalatinsk nuclear testing place, problems of Aral and Balkhash

Following World War II, the steppes of Kazakhstan became the first centre for nuclear weapons testing within the Soviet Union. The Semipalatinsk test site is a 19,000 km2 zone in the northeast of the country, 800 km north of the southern capital Almaty. The zone lies southwest of the Irtysh River which flows into Kazakhstan from China and which, for a short distance, forms part of the nuclear test site boundary.

During the period 1949-89 the former Soviet Union conducted total about 460 nuclear weapons tests within the test site. They included explosions that were conducted on the surface or in the atmosphere. Five of these surface tests were not successful and resulted in the dispersion of plutonium in the environment. Starting in 1961, more than 300 test explosions were conducted underground. Thirteen of the underground tests resulted in release of radioactive gases to the atmosphere.

The only on-site inhabitants during the testing programme were in the town of Kurchatov whose purpose was to service the site, and in the small settlements of Akzhar and Moldari along the northern edge of the site. Recently there has been a limited amount of resettlement within the area, mostly by semi-nomadic farmers and herders. The bulk of the local population is in settlements just outside the site border. The total population of these settlements is estimated to be 30,000 to 40,000 people.

The Aral Sea is a saline endorheic basin in Central Asia; it lies between Kazakhstan  (Aktobe  and Kyzylorda provinces) in the north and Karakalpakstan, an autonomous region of Uzbekistan, in the south. The name roughly translates as "Sea of Islands", referring to more than 1,500 islands that once dotted its waters.

The ecosystem of the Aral Sea and the river deltas feeding into it has been nearly destroyed, not least because of the much higher salinity. The receding sea has left huge plains covered with salt and toxic chemicals – the results of weapons testing, industrial projects, pesticides and fertilizer runoff – which are picked up and carried away by the wind as toxic dust and spread to the surrounding area. The land around the Aral Sea is heavily polluted and the people living in the area are suffering from a lack of fresh water and health problems, including high rates of certain forms of cancer and lung diseases. Respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis (most of which is drug resistant) and cancer, digestive disorders, anaemia, and infectious diseases are common ailments in the region. Liver, kidney and eye problems can also be attributed to the toxic dust storms. Health concerns associated with the region are a cause for an unusually high fatality rate amongst vulnerable parts of the population. There is a high child mortality rate of 75 in every 1,000 newborns and maternity death of 120 in every 10,000 women. Crops in the region are destroyed by salt being deposited onto the land. Vast salt plains exposed by the shrinking Aral have produced dust storms, making regional winters colder and summers hotter.

Lake Balkhash is a large (18,000 km3), closed, and slightly saline lake in the south-west of Kazakhstan. It is divided into two basins, a south-western and an eastern basin. These have somewhat different limnological conditions. Numerous fish and invertebrate introductions, many successful, have been made. In 1969, a dam impounding the Kapchagay reservoir was constructed on the River Ili, the major river flowing into the lake. The impoundment of water in this reservoir caused a fall of some 1.5 m in the water-level of the lake. This fall, together with other events on the catchment, caused considerable damage to reed swamps in the lake, to the fishery and to conservation values. A number of suggestions have been made on how to prevent further damage. Some, particularly those involving a moratorium on further filling of Kapchagay reservoir and irrigation, have been implemented, at least in part. This has caused some remission in environmental damage and provides for cautious optimism with regard to the lake’s future. Even so, the environmental status of the lake remains vulnerable and many dangers persist.

79) Declaration of state sovereignty of Kazakh SSR and its importance

25th October, 1990 is a special date for the citizens of Kazakhstan. It symbolizes the end of the old history and the beginning of a new one.

On 25th October 1990, date of the independence of Kazakhstan became a turning point in Kazakhstan's development. the Declaration of Independence was the first fundamental legislation of the new country. It is a legal, political and ideological document expressing the very principles of the realities of human existence, mostly human rights and protection of freedom, ownership, political plurality and division of powers. these fundaments became the base of the Constitution. On 16th December, 1991 Kazakhstan adopted the Constitutional Law on the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 2001 Kazakhstan celebrated the 10th anniversary of its independence. Kazakhstan is a very young independent state. But during this short period, large-scale institutional changes have occurred in the country. The people of Kazakhstan voted for a presidential form of government. A two-chamber Parliament was established, a court system created, the new capital determined. Fundamental national legislation was passed on the economy, social security and security. More recently, executive powers such as the Armed Forces, the Republican Guard, the Frontier Troops and the Navy were created.

The economy has been radically transformed to a market economy, able to be integrated into the world economy. Kazakhstan has become a leading attractor of foreign investments in the CIS and Eastern Europe. Reforms are being carried out in social services and pensions.

There are 16 political parties and over 2,500 non-governmental organizations in the country, ensuring political plurality and social stability.

Kazakhstan has voluntarily refused to host nuclear weapons on its territory and declared itself as a nuclear-free country.

Kazakhstan's foreign policy has aimed to achieve international guarantees of Kazakhstan's sovereignty and independence. Much work has been done in establishing friendly relationships with foreign countries. Over 120 countries have officially recognized and have diplomatic relationships with Kazakhstan, which is a full and active member of the UN and is strengthening its cooperation with the most authoritative international organizations including the EU, the EBRD, the IMF, MAGATE, the Red Cross, UNICEF and UNESCO. Kazakhstan has joined over 40 multilateral and over 700 bilateral agreements and treaties.

Today we can say with confidence that Kazakhstan has an internationally acknowledged government and occupies a worthy place amongst world economies.

80) Break-up of the USSR and formation of the Commonwealth of independent states as new geo-economic and geo-political system

The Soviet Union's dissolution into independent nations began early in 1985. After the years of Soviet military buildup at the expense of domestic development, economic growth was at a standstill. Failed attempts at reform, a stagnant economy, and war in Afghanistan led to a general feeling of discontent, especially in the Baltic republics and Eastern Europe.

Greater political and social freedoms, instituted by the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, created an atmosphere of open criticism of the Moscow regime. The dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986, and consequent lack of foreign exchange reserves in following years to purchase grain profoundly influenced actions of the Soviet leadership.

Several Soviet Socialist Republics began resisting central control, and increasing democratization led to a weakening of the central government. The USSR's trade gap progressively emptied the coffers of the union, leading to eventual bankruptcy. The Soviet Union finally collapsed in 1991 when Boris Yeltsin seized power in the aftermath of a failed coup that had attempted to topple reform-minded Gorbachev.

  Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created in December 1991. In the adopted Declaration the participants of the Commonwealth declared their interaction on the basis of sovereign equality.

     At present the CIS unites: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Ukraine.

     In September 1993 the Heads of the CIS States signed an Agreement on the creation of Economic Union to form common economic space grounded on free movement of goods, services, labour force, capital; to elaborate coordinated monetary, tax, price, customs, external economic policy; to bring together methods of regulating economic activity and create favourable conditions for the development of direct production relations.

     In order to facilitate further integration the Agreement on deepening of integration in economic and humanitarian field of four countries (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia) and Agreement on creation of Commonwealth of Sovereign Republics (Belarus and Russia) with creation of corresponding coordinating bodies were signed in 1995. In February 1999 by the decision of the Interstate Council of four countries (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia) the Republic of Tajikistan was recognized as participant of the customs union enjoying full rights.

     In October 2000 the Heads of five countries (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan) signed an Agreement on  creation of Eurasian Economic Community. At present Armenia, Moldova and Ukraine have the status of the observer under EAEC. In October 2005 Uzbekistan made the statement to join this organization.

     In September 2003 four countries - Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine signed an Agreement on Formation of CES (Common Economic Space).

81) Proclamation of independence of Kazakhstan. Constitutional law "On state sovereignty of the Republic of Kazakhstan"

On 25th October 1990, date of the independence of Kazakhstan became a turning point in Kazakhstan's development. the Declaration of Independence was the first fundamental legislation of the new country. It is a legal, political and ideological document expressing the very principles of the realities of human existence, mostly human rights and protection of freedom, ownership, political plurality and division of powers. these fundaments became the base of the Constitution.

On 16th December, 1991 Kazakhstan adopted the Constitutional Law on the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 2001 Kazakhstan celebrated the 10th anniversary of its independence.

Kazakhstan is a very young independent state. But during this short period, large-scale institutional changes have occurred in the country. The people of Kazakhstan voted for a presidential form of government. A two-chamber Parliament was established, a court system created, the new capital determined. Fundamental national legislation was passed on the economy, social security and security. More recently, executive powers such as the Armed Forces, the Republican Guard, the Frontier Troops and the Navy were created.

The economy has been radically transformed to a market economy, able to be integrated into the world economy. Kazakhstan has become a leading attractor of foreign investments in the CIS and Eastern Europe. Reforms are being carried out in social services and pensions.

"ON STATE OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN" The Supreme Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan, expressing the will of the people Kazakhstan, recognizing the priority of individual rights and freedoms, enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, other universally recognized norms of international law, reaffirming the right Kazakh nation to self-determination on the basis of the establishment civil society and rule of law, exercising foreign policy of peace, declaring its commitment the principle of nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament process, solemnly declares state independence Republic of Kazakhstan.

82) National Emblem of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a picture of shanyrak (upper part vaulted yurta) on the blue background on which all sides in the form of sunlight disagree uyki (anvil) framed by the wings of mythical horses. At the bottom of the emblem - the inscription "Kazakhstan". In a color image of National Emblem of the Republic of Kazakhstan - two colors: blue and gold and blue. Details Emblem The image shanyraka - the top vault of the dome yurta - in the state coat of arms republic - this image of common home of all people living in Kazakhstan. Happiness, it depends on the well-being of everyone, as shanyraka strength depends on the reliability of its uykov (pillars). Shanyrak not only in form resembles the dome of heaven, but also to reflect in people's minds is an important element zhizneustroystva. Shanyrak - a symbol of why the house, at a broader understanding and peace as the universe.   At the coat of arms depicted Tulpar - mythical horse with wings. The same horses adorned with a helmet issykskogo Golden rights Wings symbolize the dream of building a strong, prosperous nation. They also demonstrate the pure thoughts and desire for perfection and harmony in society, with nature and world civilization. In the national emblem depicts two of the mythical horse, and how would they protect shanyrak from two sides. They also vividly express the idea of serving the common home - the motherland. Motherland valued as providing zenitsu and devotedly serve her one of the important theme embodied in images of mythical horses. The blue national flag with golden ornament on the left, the sun and golden eagle soaring silhouette in the center - a symbol of freedom, independence and sovereignty of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The flag was approved on June 4, 1992, replacing a flag of the Kazakh SSR. Author flag - a famous designer and artist, Honored Art Worker of Kazakhstan, Shaken Niyazbekov. The national flag of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a rectangular blue with an image in the center of the sun with rays, which - soaring eagle. A flagpole - vertical stripes with national ornament. The image of the sun rays, the eagle and vertical stripes with national ornament - the colors of gold. The ratio of the width of the flag to its length 1:2. Single coloured background - the symbol of unity of Kazakhstan. The blue color is traditional for Turkic peoples. At the flag it means infinity sky over the whole land and people, as well as a symbol of general well-being, tranquility, peace and unity. The sun - the source of life and energy. Therefore, the silhouette of the sun is a symbol of life. Time is determined for the movement of the sun nomad. By law, heraldry, the silhouette of the sun is a symbol of wealth and abundance. It is therefore no coincidence that all 32 beams in the sun flag in the form of grain - the basis of abundance and prosperity. An eagle or golden eagle in miroponimanii nomads occupies a special place. His image in the coat of arms and flags of peoples and ethnic groups living in Kazakhstan, has a long tradition. In the language of symbols eagle silhouette means state power, breadth and vision. For stepnyakov a symbol of freedom, independence, the desire for objective, to height, flight into the future. However, the eagle with a powerful force, able to give a worthy rebuff to anyone who tries to hinder in achieving future. Silhouette eagle emerged from the ideas and aspirations of young sovereign Kazakhstan to the heights of world civilization. On the left side along the flagpole, is a typical national ornament, crystallizing the culture and traditions of Kazakhstan. In 1992-1996 he worked. ornament was red. The city is capital of Astana of Kazakhstan. he capital city of Astana of Kazakhstan. Cities and places of Kazakhstan Since December 10, 1997 the town was called Akmola, and since May 6, 1998 was renamed Astana (since 1961 Akmolinsk, later Tselinograd). Astana is an important industrial and cultural center of the republic, as well as rail and road transport interchange. In the current Astana in 1824 was founded as a military station in 1868 was awarded the status of the city and only 50 - 20 m-year-century city has become an important centre of development of natural pristine natural resources northern region of the country. Industry city known for agro-industrial engineering, food industry, processing of agricultural materials, transport sphere. Previously, the city was strengthening, based Russian-Kazakh troops in 1830 on the bank of the River Ishim in areas Karaotkel. Since becoming the capital city apparently has changed. Architects and builders working in the capital pose unique buildings, architectural ensembles, which are perfectly in harmony with modern design city. Astana was one of the largest business centers. All government organizations, diplomatic missions to 44 countries and 113 joint ventures and foreign enterprises located here. Each year in the city are organized various international exhibitions, conferences, musical events and festivals Peoples of Kazakhstan. In 1999, to address UNESCO, Astana was awarded the title "City of Peace". The city has a theater of opera and ballet, drama theater, many museums. All this creates a chain link between history and the old city the new capital. Currently under construction are many office buildings, business and entertainment centers. One entertainment centre "Duman" in which the oceanarium, three-dimensional cinema, theatre, slot machines, bowling, nightclub, casino, hotel, cafes and restaurants for every taste and indoor water park.