Arend Lijphart. Patterns of democracy.

Definition of democracy –government by the people or government by the representatives of the people. Not by but also for the people. As many people as possible. Executives-parties dimension. Federal-unitary dimension.

Federalism – guaranteed division of power between the central government and regional governments. Strong bicameralism, a rigid construction and strong judicial review.

Westminster Model of Democracy.

The Presidency, Congress and the Supreme Court. Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Britain’s former colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean.

UK.

1. Concentration of executive power in one-party and bare-majority cabinets: cabinet is the most powerful organ; large minority is excluded from power and condemned to the role of opposition; Labour and Liberal parties.

2. Cabinet dominance: the cabinet is dependent on the confidence of Parliament because the House of Commons can vote a cabinet out of office, it controls the cabinet. Strong cabinet leadership depends on majority support in the House of Commons.

3. Two-party system: Conservative (right-of-center, middle class) and the Labour party (left-of center, working class). Interwar years the Labour party replaced the Liberals.

4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of elections: first-pass-the post system – the candidate with the majority vote, or if there is no majority, with the largest minority vote wins. Disproportional results. Pluralitarian democracy instead of majoritarian democracy.

5. Interest group pluralism: government-versus-opposition pattern. Group system: a system of free-for-all pluralism. Pluralism means a multiplicity of interest groups that exert pressure on the government in an uncoordinated and competitive manner. Britain’s interest group system is clearly pluralist.

6. Unitary and centralized government: unitary and centralized state. Local government not constitutionally guaranteed and financially dependent on the central government. Br is the largest unitary state in Europe; 2 exceptions – Northern Ireland with its own parliament and cabinet with a high degree of autonomy. Scotland and Wales.

7. Concentration of legislative power in a unicameral legislature: Legislative power is concentrated in a single house or chamber. Parliament consists of 2 chambers: the House of Commons (elected) and Lords (hereditary nobility). Almost all of the powers belong to the House of Commons.

8. Constitutional flexibility: It can be changed by Parliament in the same way as other laws – by regular majorities instead of the supermajorities, 2/3 majorities, required in many other democricaes for amending written constitutions.

9. Absence of judicial review: there is no written constitutional document with the status of “higher law” against which the courts can test the constitutionality of regular legislation. Exception, after entering European Community – it accepted the Community’s laws and institution as higher authorities.

10. A central bank is controlled by the executive: The Bank of England is under the control of the cabinet.

New Zealand.

1996 first election by PR.

1. Concentration of executive power in one-party and bare-majority cabinets: the Labour party (socioeconomic issues left-of-center) and the National party (poitical prefereces right-of-center).

2. Cabinet dominance: predominance over the legislature.

3. Two-party system.

4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of elections: the House of Representatives was elected according to the plurality method in single-member districts + but Maori minority (exception – minority representation).

5. Interest group pluralism: clearly pluralist. More than Britain.

6. Unitary and centralized government: 6 provinces with considerable autonomous powers and functions vis-à-vis the central government but these provinces were abolished. Now it is unitary and centralized.

7. Concentration of legislative power in a unicameral legislature: Unicameralism.

8. Constitutional flexibility: lacks in written constitutional document. To change ¾ majority of House of Representatives. Majority rule prevails. Parliament is also sovereign. To amend – by regular majority rule.

9. Absence of judicial review:

10. A central bank is controlled by the executive: Reserve Bank Act 1989 the central bank was given the sole responsibility not to exceed the target rate of inflation (Shift to central bank autonomy is exception).

1996 a radical shift away from Westminster model.

Barbados.

Strongly homogeneous society. Independence from Britain 1966.

1. Concentration of executive power in one-party and bare-majority cabinets: sigle-party majority – Babados labour party (BLP right-of-center) and the Democratic Labour party (DLP left-of-center position on the left-right spectrum).

2. Cabinet dominance: small size of legislature.

3. Two-party system:

4. Majoritarian and disproportional system of elections: since 1971 all elections have been by plurality in single-member districts but electoral disproportionality has remained high. Less pluralitarian democracy than Br and NZ.

5. Interest group pluralism: trend toward corporatist practices

6. -10: centralized form of the government, not pure majoritarian model. Bicameral legislature of a popularly elected House of Assembly and appointed Senate that can delay but not veto. Constitution gives explicitly of judiciary review. The central bank has a medium degree of autonomy in monetary policy.

Consensus Model of Democracy.

Majority rule. Government vs. opposition. Principles of exclusion  undemocratic (minority hard to get to the power), discrimination (ex. N. Ireland  PR except House of Commons). Multiethnic.

Switzerland and Belgium.

1. Executive power-sharing in broad coalition cabinets. Linguistic groups.

2. Executive-legislative balance of power. Switzerland neither parliamentary nor presidential. Members of the council are elected individually 4 years. Independent executive/legislature balanced than cabinet-parliamental relations. Switzerland Federation Council is powerful but not supreme. Belgium parliamentary form, cabinet dependent on legislature (not dominant) but can influence on parliament. Give-and-take relationship.

3. Multiparty system. Any party with majority status because 1) plural society, 2) multidimensional character + Belgium division of languages.

4. PR.

5. Corporatism of IG. Strong social and liberal corporatism. Triparty concentration, large IG.

6. Federal and decentralized government. SW. decentralized and BG unique federalism.

7. Strong bicameralism

8. Constitutional rigidity. SW 20% of population constitutional veto, BG 2/3 majority of 2 Houses of legislature or =+= without language speaking groups

9. No judicial review

10. Central bank independence. SW the strongest and independent. BG the weakest but autonomous

EU.

EU commission = cabinet. EU parliament = lower house of legislature

Council of EU = higher house of legislature.

1. Executive-legislature power-sharing. 20 members in EU commission.

2. Executive-legislature balance. EU commission must be approved by veto in EU parliament (it can dismiss EU commission with 2/3 majority)

3. Multiparty system. 626 members. 8 major parties.

4. PR

5. IG corporatism. On national level.

6. Decentralized and confederal

7. Strong bicameralism

8. Constitutional rigidity

9. Has judicial review.

10. Central bank independence