Capitalist Development and Democracy: a Theoretical Framework.

Concept of democracy: fair elections, responsible state apparatus, freedoms of expression, association, protection of individual rights against arbitrary state action.

Installation of democracy need complex class compromises. Balance between democratic institutions+subordinate classes  dominant classes that threat interests.

Minimal conditions for democracy:

1. Strong institutional separation

2. Differentiation of government and politics from social life

3. Social economic power

4. Equality (Aristotle, Rousseau, Jefferson). Gender, race.

5. Strength of group identification.

6. Autonomy of the state from the dominant classes

7. Legitimation and social power. Complex interdependence of state and civil society.

8. Social and economic power, transnational relations  development of national economy

Marxists and liberal saw bourgeoisie as the protagonist of democracy  eliminate feudal and absolutist political forms  democratic rule. Collective actors. Idea of classes as potential historical actors  class cause structural change and political development.

Functionalists: limited resource  competition of ethic/class for power in the economy and polity.

Gramsci: density of civil society  capitalistic development. +trade unions, working class parties = promotion of democracy (their authority is important) + role of culture and religion for dem. values.

Different economic development  different class structures.

Rise of capitalism: more working class + subordinate class and urban working class. Class related to democracy.

Autonomy is related to democracy. The opposite each other.

Strong police and military are deteriorate decision-making – bad for democracy.

War related to democracy: 1) mobilizes people  will to participate, 2) inclusion of working class in the process. Bad: 1) power vacuum, strengthening of military etc.

Democracy related to economic development: technology. Division of labor affects economic development.

Transfers of ideas and institutions cause positive democratic changes (except Fascist ideas).

Advanced capitalist countries.

12 out of 16 experienced direct democratic transition. 4 countries – Germany, Austria, Italy and Spain- roll-back. Ended because of war.

Views about capitalist democracies.

Therborn – role of working class, unions, role of geopolitics, foreign wars. Focused on reforms and exaggeration of the role of working class (ex. two agratian cases Switzerland and Norway and the case where multi-class alliances were responsible for the success of reform (France, Britain, Denmark, Sweden and Belgium).

Lipset – enlargement of the middle class (the most important), English settler colonies economic development.

Moore – role of landlords and the state in the ruling coalition during industrialization (primary source of democratic impulses were bourgeoisie). +Excluded Italy and Spain (because they fit more modified structure). Revolutionary break is necessary for democracy (ex. Fr). Pattern of a landholder-dominated state in alliance with a dependent bourgeoisie (except Italy).

Rokkan and Katzenstein – weakness or absence of the landed upper class. Against revolutionary break (Moore) because small European countries did not experienced this.

Skocpol – multiple paths to democracy, but a single path to modern capitalist authoritarianism. Once a country passes an initial stage of industrialization, has avoided peasant revolution, it will develop in democratic direction. If it lacks any essential characteristics then goes to authoritarianism. The condition of A. is development of coalition of large landholders, the crown (military, monarch, bureaucracy etc.) and dependent bourgeoisie of medium strength.

Kurth – different economic basis. Timing of industrialization and the movement through various industrial phases (from light consumer goods to capital goods) influenced development of Europe (Br, Fr, Belg). Light consumer goods, textiles. German industrialization was dependent on the state (heavy) it tied German bourgeoisie and strengthened the authoritarian Junker crown alliance.

Moore. Factors for authoritarianism:

1. The landed upper class must be strong or politically dominant

2. Labor repressive agriculture

3. Experienced sufficient industrialization that bourgeoisie cannot be more politically powerful than the landed classes

4. The bourgeoisie is politically dependent

5. Militarism

6. No revolutionary break from the past. Peasant revolutionary potential is low

7. A state can suppress peasant protests

Britain – commercialized agriculture (ex. sheep rising). A-Hungary, Spain, Italy, Germany – labor-repressive agriculture. Even both with strong agrarian elite. Britain – democracy (d) survived, in the 2^nd group – no.

WWI. Democratized countries: France, Switzerland, Denmark, Norway. Smallholders, urban petty bourgeoisie, dominant industrial sector, working and capitalist classes.

Switzerland. Adoption of the liberal constitution 1848. Intervention of family farmers political developments (political influence of farmers). Industrialization (textiles) without state aid. Depended on water (no many factories in the cities).Economic development  promotion of commerce. The Liberal program for extension of suffrage and representative and open government (“Freisinnige Grossfamilie”). Anti-clerical component galvanized conservative opposition. Unusual that bourgeoisie supported not only economic liberalism but also full democracy (Shared interest with other groups in the liberal movement and faced no industrial labor organization).

France. Peasant property was widespread. Total amount of land noble possessed dropped from ¼ to 1/5. Land went to bourgeoisie not to peasants. But for peasantry there were guarantying property of rights and security and abolition of seigneorial rights  commercial market agriculture. Good transportation. Centralization was bad for democratization (roll-back). Revolution dislodged the aristocracy from its privileged position in the army and bureaucracy. Appeared ideology of republican faction of the working class that combined demands for democratic government. The social and political fractions mobilized the peasantry (events of 1847-52 and 1868-77). Good transportation. Successful campaign made by “democratic socialists” which gained the support of the urban petty bourgeoisie, professionals, and peasants. Success in establishing democracy in 1877 not in 1849:

July monarchy – alliance artisans and urban middle class. 3^rd Republic – alliance of urban and provincial bourgeoisie.

Norway. Early suffrage extensions to peasants. Scandinavian peasantry was divided into the medium and larger farmers not through supportive of final push to universal suffrage that contributed to the process of democratization.

WWI. Changed the balance of power in society, strengthening the working class and weakening the upper class. Ruling class was discredited. Labor support was necessary. In Britain, Belgium and the Netherlands were formed social forces.

Sweden. Agrarian elites were weak. Shared the most characteristics with the countries which developed in an authoritarian direction. Nobility was dominated the officers. A highly solidaristic and aggressive employers association, militant and organized fight against unionization up to WWI. Strong labor movement. Swedish industry was important. No powerful landed upper class. Independent peasantry was important.

Scandinavian cases: the absence of a strong landed nobility allowed the Netherlands to develop in a democratic direction without experiencing a revolutionary break from the past.

Britain. The absence of labor repressive agriculture (Moore), the absence of bureaucratic state and standing army (Skocpol), or the independence of the bourgeoisie due to the country’s status as an early industrializer (Kurth). Extensions of the working class in 1860s. Agricultural and landlord had much more economic and political power, working class was less potential force in the country. Pattern of peaceful political competition  suffrage extensions for working-class.

Tradition and breakdown: the Authoritarian cases.

Working class and allies were unable to maintain democracy. The alliance was military strong (Tilly).Funding of authoritarian parties and movements. The mechanism of ideological hegemony. The peasantry were the agents of their own mobilization and the political forms were agrarian. Strong class landholders had close ties with state, they exercised an ideological influence over the middle class and peasants. Strong agrarian elite (tabl.).

Italy. Po Valley – large estates (significant landed class). Industrially advanced north. Do not fit Moore’s pattern of a landholder-dominated state in alliance with a dependent bourgeoisie. Developments of trasformismo – a political barter system with economic and political interests. Government attempted to encourage economic development through protection of industry, protecting agriculture as compensation. The working class was important in the introduction of democracy (Giolitti progect –mobilization of workers and peasants). But break of democracy  post-war strikes  Fascosts made violent attacks on peasant organizations (they got support from modest farmers who were dependent on wage labor as well from large landholders). Fascists controlled labor market, jobs and got support from agricultural workers and small farmers. South was undeveloped and its civil society was weak. Liberals in Italy were not democrats.

Germany. Heavy industry as a segment of bourgeoisie that supported imperialism and was dominant socially and politically in Imperial Germany. Anti-democratic  weakness of democracy. Liberals do not support bourgeoisie. Junkers sustained authoritarianism, anti-labor, and heavy industry.

Moore: Industrialization from above by the state.

WWI changed the balance of class power. Fall of labor party. Rise of Hitler’s popularity and DNVP (heavy industry coal + steel) – anti-democrats, authoritarianism +role of big business  rise of NAZI.

All people not for Catholics or Sozialist/worker class voted for NAZI. Authoritarian political forces promoted imperialism.

Prussian state allied with: upper class, bourgeoisie, heavy industry, imperialism, exclusion of the masses, dominate classes’ hegemony over protestants and middle class.

War: strengthened working class.

Austria. Army, bureaucrats, elite and landed nobility (leadership, lords were predominant). Upper class supported authoritarian forces. Weak pro-democratic camp than in GM because of difference of church alliances. Liberalism based on bourgeoisie and upper-middle class. Labor repressive. Bourgeoisie was economically dependent on state. State promoted industrialization (tax, tariffs, subsidies, education, ownership etc.)

After defeat  try to balance of class power  Socialist movement.

Role of banks and Social Democrats and Social Christians.

Spain. 2/3 of land possessed by nobility and church  liberal program on corporate property rights  redistribution of land, sold to government. Catholics to Conservatives. Liberals and middle class for liberal democratic ideas. Rep and Soc no power.

Creation of national industry  economic development 1875-1920 more urban and lower middle class and working class (secondary role in democratization). Rep and Soc unions gained power. Army as an instrument of authoritarian seizure. Agrarian reforms.

Bad side: low capitalist development, weak civil society, hegemony of authoritarian force but  roll back

Revolutions in IXX  progressive government, liberal constitution, destruction of dictatorship.

US. Racial base and inclusion of poor whites. Different political systems in different regions. Powerful and radical labor movement. Authoritarian system in the South based on labor repressive agriculture with democratic system in the North  decentralization  racial distinctiveness of the class. Democratization  domination of farmers in the country-side. Extension of suffrage, No movement toward authoritarian coalition. After WWII enfranchisement of blacks in the South  modernization of Southern agriculture and industrialization.

Canada. Broad suffrage was delayed 60 years after US. Economic development. 1920 transition to full democracy. From fur trading to agrarian economy. Pressure for representative government. Liberals for suffrage extantion. Left wing of liberals attacked the urban business elites. Free trade. Jacksonian demands.

Australia and New Zealand. Democracy on early stage of industrialization. Repressive agriculture. Representative government in 1820. Wool economy. Small-holders. Landed upper classes did not control the state  no development of authoritarianism. No exclusive political power oligarchs had. Strengthen of anti-squatter alliance. Mining replaced gold digging. Strengthen of urban bourgeoisie and rural upper classes. Liberals had succeeded. Tasmania was backward because of 1856 ec. depression. New Zealand. Post-mercantilist Britain model. Liberal free philosophy. Sheep estates. Small farmers. Constitution in 1846. Liberals won  democratization. Plural voting.