Metonymy

- Synecdoche

- Container instead of content (dish, a cup)

- Characteristic feature instead of the object (В комнату вошла вошла голова)

- Name of the instrument instead of the action/doer.

Zeugma, Oxymoron, Hyperbole and Litotes, Epithet, Periphrasis, Antonomasia, Euphemisms, Personification, Allusion, Irony, Rhetorical questions.

2. Stylistic devices making use of the structure of language units

Repetition

1) Lexical repetition

Anaphora – the repetition of the same elements in the beginning of several sentences.

Epiphora - the repetition of the same elements in the end of several sentences.

2) Syntactic repetition (may include syntactic tautology) or syntactic parallelism

Chiasm - a reversed version of syntactic parallelism. Ex. Down dropped the breeze/The sails dropped down.

Climax (gradation) and Anticlimax

Climax – lexical or syntactic repetition of elements which is combined with gradual increase in the emotional colouring of the sentence.

Anticlimax – the opposite to the climax (the final element is obviously weaker in degree).

Ellipsis – The device consists in omission of some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the context.

Asyndeton - is a deliberate omission of conjunctions.

Polysyndeton - (opposite to asyndeton) the repeated use of the same connectors before several parts of sentence.

Antithesis- a structure that stresses a sharp contrast in meaning between the parts within 1 sentence.

3. Phonetic expressive means and devices

Alliteration, assonance

Alliteration – is a device based on repetition of the same or similar sounds at close distance, which makes speech more expressive. Ex. Willy-nilly (volence-nolence)

Assonance – (a variant of alliteration) – 1) repetition of the same vowels only.

Onomatopoeia – (sound imitation) – the use of words which denote some phenomenon by imitating its real sounding (produced by animals or natural noises).

The use of Rhythm and rhyme in versification

Rhyme – is produced by alternation of regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Why do you cry, Willy? Why do you cry?

7. Notions of “style”, “norm” and “function” in the language.

(Style and Norm – билет 5)

The notion of stylistic function

A word is always characterized by its denotative meaning (linked to its logical or nominative meaning) and not necessarily by connotation. Onnotative meaning is connected with extra-linguistic circumstances such as the situation of communication or its participants. According to the works of Prof. Arnold and Turaeva, connotative meaning consists of 4 components: emotive, evaluative, expressive and stylistic. The 4 components may be all present at once, or in different combinations or they may not be found in the word at all.

Connotation – is a notion, denoting “additional components of meaning which express some emotional colouring or evaluation of the object named” (V.V.Gurevich).

Stylistic connotations may be Inherent and Adherent (occasional).

According to the works of Prof. I. R. Arnold, Z. Y. Turaeva (the Leningrad school) - Connotative meaning consists of 4 components: emotive, evaluative, expressive, stylistic.

The emotive component of connotation expresses various feelings (love, respect, dignity) and emotions (pleasure, surprise, anger). EX: He is a big boy already.

words with emotive connotations :: words, describing or naming emotions and feelings

The evaluative component of connotation: Negative, positive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaker’s attitude. EX. The verb “to sneak” means “to move silently for a bad purpose”.

Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the message (group of words that help to create expressive effect are intensifiers – absolutely, really, quite, etc.).

A word possesses stylistic connotation if it belongs to a certain functional style or a specific layer of vocabulary (archaisms, barbarisms, slang, etc). EX: price index, negotiate assets (business language).