Em based on the deliberate omission of some obligatory elements

In the sentence structure

ELLIPSIS – is a deliberate omission of one or both main members of sentence for definite stylistic purposes. Being the norm of the colloquial type of speech ellipsis assumes new qualities when used in the written language, especially in fiction.

Functions:

1. In fiction the peculiarities of the structure of the oral type of speech may be used to characterize the manner of speech of the personages.

e.g. "Where are you going, Edna?" – her mother shrieked.

"Out".

"Who with?"

"Minnie Wason". (J. Priestley. Minnie Watson).

2. Ellipsis may be used in the author's narration in order to emphasize some fact.

e.g. They were a good set of lads. Took pride in their work, and that's rare now. Broken up now. Finished. (S. Chaplin. The Sin Seam).

3. lt may also be used in represented speech where it creates the stylistic effect of the natural abruptness of speech.

APOSIOPESIS – is a sudden break in speech caused by some strong emotion or reluctance to finish the sentence.

e.g. Piggy flushed suddenly: "My dad's dead," he said quickly, "and my mum..." He took off his glasses and looked vainly for something with which to clean them. (Q. Goldlng. The Lord of the Flies).

NOMINATIVE SENTENCES – are one-member sentences where predicate is omitted. The nominative sentences may include components, which are connected with the nucleus not only with the help of coordination and subordination but with the apposition as well.

e.g. Mr. George Sampson, a friend of the family. (Ch. Dickens)

The main stylistic functions of the nominative sentences are:

1. Used in close succession the one-member sentences may increase the dynamism of narration.

e.g. But if they should! If they should guess! The horror! The flight! The exposure! The police! (Th. Dreiser. An American Tragedy).

2. They may be used in the introductory description acquainting the reader with the place of the story, or presenting the background of the action.

e.g. He stopped. No light from beneath. No sound from within. (A. Hailey. Airport).

ASYNDETON – is the connection of sentences, phrases or words without any conjunctions but with the help of the lexical meaning of these elements.

e.g. She watched them go, she said nothing; it was not to begin then. (W. Paulkner).

There is no formal sign of connection between the sentences. There is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.

Asyndeton creates a certain rhythmical arrangement, usually making the narration measured, energetic and tense.

Em based on the redundancy of the elements of the sentence

EM of this type are the result of the syntactical process of the expansion and complication of the model of sentence. Repetition, enumeration, polysyndeton are the result of the process of expansion of the structure. Here we refer emphatic constructions and parenthetic sentences as well. Thus under the redundancy of elements we understand different types of repetition of the element in question or additional complication of the syntactical structure.

REPETITION – is an EM which serve to emphasize certain statements of the speaker, so it possesses considerable emotive force.

The types of repetition:

1.Ordinary repetition – is the repetition of one and the same member of the sentence, word combinations or whole sentences immediately following each other.

e.g. Scroodge went to bed again, and thought, and thought, and thought it over and over and over ... (Ch. Dickens. Christmas Carols).

2.Framing or ring repetition – is the repetition of the same unit at the beginning and at the end of the same sentence.

e.g. I cooled off where Frank was concerned; he didn't notice, but I cooled off. (V. Pritchett. The Sailor).

A special type of repetition which is typical of English colloquial speech is the repetition of the subject expressed by a personal pronoun and the predicate or its part at the end of sentence – the so called appende statements.

e.g. I'm old fashioned, I am. (A. Sillitoe. A Start in Life).

3. Anadiplosis (catch repetition) – is the repetition of the same unit at the end of the preceding and at the beginning of the following sentence.

e.g. Poirot was shaken, shaken and embittered. (A. Cristie. The Nemean Lion).

4.Chain repetition – is the combination of several catch repetitions.

e.g. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick's face. The smile extended into laugh; the laugh into roar, the roar became general. (Ch. Dickens. Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club).

ENUMERATION – is the EM made by the repetition of the homogeneous words or word combinations in the same syntactical position. Enumeration may be used to emphasize the whole utterance.

e.g. Miss Matfield liked her fiction to be full of jungles, coral reefs, plantations, lagoons, hibiscus flowers, the scent of vanilla, schooners on the wide pacific, tropical nights. (J. Priestley. Angel Pavement).

SYNTACTICAL TAUTOLOGY – is the repetition of semantically and grammatically identical elements of the sentence (usually the subject expressed by a noun and by a pronoun).

e.g. Miss Tillie Webster, she slept forty days and nights without waking up. (O. Henry)

The main stylistic function of this EM is the emphatic stress of a certain part of the sentence. It is commonly used in colloquial speech and aims at the emotional impact on the reader.

POLYSYNDETON – is a specific type of connection between the components of the sentence, based on the repetition of the same conjunction, that is on polysyndetic coordination.

e.g. She had herself a rich ruby look, for what with eating, and drinking, and shouting and laughing and singing her face was crimson and almost steaming. (J. Priestley. Angel Pavement).

The main function of polysyndeton is emphasis. The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection makes an utterance more rhythmical. The conjunctions being generally unstressed elements, when placed before each meaningful member will cause the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables - the essential requirement of rhythm in verse.

EMPHATIC CONTRUCTIONS (“it is he who"; with the verb "to do"). The usage of the construction "it is he who" helps to emphasize any part of the sentence but the predicate.

e.g. That evening it was Dave, who read to the boys their bed-time story. (D. Carter. Fatherless Sons).

This construction has developed within the framework of colloquial speech, where it aims at making the direct emotional impact on the interlocutor. It may be used in different styles of written literary language with slightly different functions.

In scientific prose where the logical principle of arranging ideas predominates it aims at logical emphasis with the purpose to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance.

In the newspaper language which seeks to influence the public opinion this construction fully realizes its emphatic value.

Emphatic construction with the verb "to do" is used as an intensifier. e.g. I like. – I do like. Take it. – Do take it.

These constructions are synonymous of the unemphatic ones. The same is true of the emphatic constructions with the verb-intensifier "go".

e.g. Why do you go and say such things?

PARANTHETIC SENTENCES – are sentences which are syntactically independent from the sentence they are included into. They are characterized by phonetic peculiarities and positional independence from the main sentence.

The usage of these sentences may produce different stylistic effects:

1. They may create two layers of narration by conveying the inner speech of the characters.

2. They may achieve the emphatic effect.

e.g. But – and this was impossible to understand al all – my mother didn't seem to like Henry. (G. Golding. The Lord of the Flies).

3. They are used to give an additional information.

e.g. Then she began – the smoke making her eyes blink and run as she bent down – to put me into the correct position for playing the violin.(G. Golding. The Lord of the Flies).