4.Antonyms.

Antonyms may be defined as words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style whose denotational meanings render contrary contradictory notions. There are at least the following types of antonyms in English:

• Contradictories

e.g. dead and alive. To use one of the antonyms is to contradict the other and to use “not” before one of them is to make it semantically equivalent to the other: to dead = alive. According to V.N.Komissarov contradictories usually occur in the following context: not A but B.

• Contraries differ from contradictories mainly because contradictories admit of no possibility between them” one is either dead or alive, whereas contraries admit of such possibilities. Two may be observed in cold-hot and cold-warm, which are intermediate members.

Contraries may be opposed to each other by the absence or presence of one of the components of meaning like sex or age (man – woman). Contraries are used in the context.: A and B = all.

e.g. We see men and women there.

• Incompatibles are antonyms which are characterized by the relations of exclusion. To say “morning” is to say “not afternoon, not evening, not night”. The formula of typical contexts in which incompatibles occur is as follows: A or B

e.g. You may choose a red of a blue pencil.

There is one more context in which various antonyms occur: X is A, Y is B.

e.g. the whole was being, oneself was little.

All these contexts are introduced by Professor V.N. Komissarov in his dictionary of antonyms «Словарь антонимов современного английского языка». Komissarov also keeps to the time no named classification of antonyms into absolute or root (love-hate) and derivational antonyms (known-unknown). Derivational antonyms contain the negative prefixes dis-, il-/im-/in-/ir- and un- (appear-disappear, logical-illogical).

Like synonyms antonyms are used in phraseological units. e.g. in black and white, to play fast and loose.

The English language is rich in antonyms. Antonyms are often found in poetry: “My only love sprung from my only hate! Too early seen unknown, and known too late”. (From Shakespeare, «Romeo and Juliet»).

5.Morpheme. Structural types of words. The stem of a word. Functions of roots, suffixes, prefixes, inflections.

Words consist of morphemes. A morpheme is defined as the smallest indivisible and two-facet language unit. A morpheme is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. Morpheme is occurred in speech only as constituent parts of words. Morpheme – the minimum meaningful language unit. The term “morpheme” is derived from Greek “morphe” (form). Morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster “please, pleasing., pleasure, pleasant” the root morpheme is represented by the phonetic shapes pli:z, pleʒ, plez. All the representations of the given morpheme are called allomorphs.

According to the complexity of the morphemic structure of the word, all English words fall into two large classes:

• Segmentable words, those which can be segmented into morphemes (agreement, fearless).

• Non-segmentable words, those which cannot be segmented into morphemes (house, husband)

Morphemes can be classified:

• From the semantic point of view

In the words helpless, handy, refill – the root-morphemes (the lexical nucleuses of words) help-, hand-, -fill: root-morpheme has individual lexical meaning shared by no other morpheme of the language. The root-morpheme common to a set of words makes up a word-cluster.

e.g. the morpheme “teach” makes up teach, teacher, teaching

Non-root morphemes include inflectional morphemes (inflexions) and affixational morphemes (affixes). Inflections carry only a grammatical meaning and are relevant only for the formation of grammatical word-forms. Affixes are relevant for building various types of stems – the part of a word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm.

Affixes:

• Prefixes preceded the root-morpheme

• Suffixes follow the root-morpheme

Affixes possess the part-of-speech meaning and a generalized lexical meaning (-er denotes a noun and doer of an action).

• From the structural point of view morphemes fall into:

• Free morphemes (one that coincides with the stem or a word-form). The root morpheme “friend” of the noun “friendship” is naturally qualified as a free morpheme, because it coincides with one of the forms of the noun “friend”.

• Bound morphemes occurs only as a constituent part of a word. Affixes are bound morphemes as they always make part of a word (pref.: im-, dis-, de-: suf.: -ness, -ship, -ment). Many root-morphemes also belong to the class of bound morphemes when they are in combination with roots or affixes. All unique roots and pseudo-roots are bond morphemes (such as “theor” – in “theory”, “barbar” – in “barbarism”).

• Semi-bound morphemes can function both as an affix and as a free morpheme.

e.g. the morpheme “well” occurs as a free morpheme. That coincides with the stem in the utterance (sleep well) and to occurs as a bound morpheme in the word well-known.

According to the number of morphemes:

• Monomorphic – root-words consist of only one root-morpheme (small class)

• Polymorphic:

Monoradical (one-root words)	Polyradical (2 or more roots)
1.radical-suffixal words (1 root morpheme+1 or more suffixal morpheme – acceptable)	1.two or more roots with no affixational morpheme – book-stand)
2.radical-prefixal words (1 root morpheme+prefixal morpheme – outdo, unbutton)	2.at least two roots and 1 or more affixational morphemes – pen-holder, wedding-pie)
3.prefixo-radical-suffixal words (1 root+prefixal and suffixal morpheme – disagreeable)