UNIT 12

CLASSIFICATION OF LAW

BEFORE YOU READ

Answer these questions

1. Do you agree that every society that has ever existed has recognized the need for law? Why?

2. What law classifications do you know?

READING TASKS

A. Understanding main points

Read the text below the need for law and answer these questions, beginning your answers with the fol­lowing phrases: as a rule …; to tell the truth …; as far as I know …; the matter is that …; as far as I remember …; as far as I am concerned …; frankly/strictly speak­ing …; to make a long story short …

1. What is criminal law? What does it characterize?

2. What does the punish­ment for crime range from? Give examples.

3. Do you agree that the police are the public servants? What is the duty of the police?

4. What is civil law concerned with? What are the major branches of civil law?

5. What is the main distinction of civil law from criminal law?

6. What laws does public law comprise?

7. What law has been defined as the rules which regulate the structure of the principal organs of government and their relationship to each other?

8. Is the distinction between substantive law and procedural law always clear? Why?

9. Until what time does English law presume that an accused person is innocent?

10. What law is operative within a State? What does one branch of that law relate to?

B. Understanding details

Mark these statements T (true) or F (false) according to the information in the text. Give your reason using the fol­lowing phrases: as a matter of fact ...; I don't think so …; I'm of the same opinion …; in my opinion …; on the contrary …; strictly speaking ...; to my mind ...

1. These laws may have been written, that’s why primitive people had no rules to regulate the conduct of the group.

2. In different countries law may be classified in various ways and the number of divisions is different.

3. Crime is defined as an act of disobedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment.

4. The punish­ment for crime ranges from life imprisonment to a money penalty or absolute discharge.

5. It is forbidden for private citizens to enforce the criminal law by beginning proceedings themselves.

6. Civil law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards each other.

7. Constitutional law has been defined as the rules which regulate the structure of the principal organs of government.

8. The distinction between substantive law and procedural law is always clear.

9. English law presumes that an accused person is innocent until proved guilty.

10. One branch of public international law is the law relating to conflict of laws, otherwise known as private international law.

THE NEED FOR LAW

Every society that has ever existed has recognized the need for law. These laws may have been unwritten, but even primitive people had rules to regulate the conduct of the group.

Law may be classified in various ways. The four main divisions are as follows: criminal law and civil law, public law and private law, substantive law and procedural law, municipal law and public international law

Criminal law is that part of the law which characterizes certain kinds of wrongdoings as offences against the State, not necessarily violating any private right, and punishable by the State. Crime is defined as an act of disobedience of the law forbidden under pain of punishment. The punish­ment for crime ranges from death or imprisonment to a money penalty or absolute discharge. For example, to commit murder is an offence against the State because it disturbs the public peace and security, so the action is brought by the State and not the victim. The police are the public servants whose duty is the prevention and detection of crime and the prosecution of offenders before the courts of law. Private citizens may legally enforce the criminal law by beginning proceedings themselves, but, except in minor cases of common assault, rarely do so in practice.

Civil law is concerned with the rights and duties of individuals towards each other. It includes the following: 1) law of contract, dealing with that branch of the law which determines whether a promise is legally enforceable and what are its legal consequences. 2) law of tort. A tort is defined as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a common law action for unliquidated damages and which is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breach of trust or other merely equitable obligation. Examples of torts are: nuisance, negligence, defamation, and trespass. 3) law of property is that part of the law which determines the nature and extent of the rights which people may enjoy over land and other property - for example, rights of 'ownership' of land, or rights under a lease. 4) law of succession is that part of the law which determines the devolution of property on the death of the former owner. 5) family law is that branch of the law which defines the rights, duties, and status of husband and wife, parent and child, and other members of a household.

The above are the major branches of civil law. Its main distinction from criminal law is that in civil law the legal action is begun by the private citizen to establish rights (in which the State is not primarily concerned) against another citizen or group of citizens, whereas criminal law is enforced on behalf of or in the name of the State. Civil law is sometimes referred to as private law as distinct from public law.

Public law comprises constitutional law, administrative law, and criminal law. Constitutional law has been defined as the rules which regulate the structure of the principal organs of government and their relationship to each other, and determine their principal functions. This subject includes: choice of monarch, his or her powers and prerogative; the constitution of the legislature; powers and privileges of Members of Parliament; the relationship between the separate chambers of Parlia­ment; the status of Ministers; the civil service; the armed forces; the police; the relations between the central government and local authorities; the making of treaties; admission and rights of aliens; the courts of justice; liberties of speech, of meeting, of association; and voting rights.

Administrative law is defined as that body of legal principles which concerns the rights and duties arising from the impact upon the individual of the actual functioning of the executive instruments of government. For example, admin­istrative law determines the legal rights of a private citizen whose house a local authority intends to acquire compulsorily.

Substantive law is the body of rules of law in the above branches which regulate the rights, duties and liabilities among citizens and governments.

Procedural law lays down the rules governing the manner in which a right is enforced under civil law, or a crime prosecuted under the criminal law. Thus a legal action is started by taking out a writ in civil cases, by a summons or an arrest in criminal cases, and ends by the trial and judgment in the court itself, followed by the execution of the judgment. Procedural law governs the steps in the progress of the civil legal action or criminal prosecution.

The distinction between substantive law and procedural law is not always clear. It is an important rule of law that the prosecution may not (except in special circumstances) refer to the accused as bad character during the course of the trial, for this could clearly prejudice their case. English law presumes that an accused person is innocent until proved guilty. This rule may be regarded as either substantive or procedural, depending on the view taken of its nature.

Municipal or national law is the law operative within a State. One branch of that law is the law relating to conflict of laws, otherwise known as private international law, which determines which national law governs a case in which there is a foreign element.

Public international law is the body of rules of law which govern the relationships between states, particularly rules of war. Certain writers hold that since there is no world authority with power to enforce the rules or laws and that, as public international law is incompatible with national sovereignty, the essential characteristics of law are absent.

Vocabulary notes

conduct, n. – поведінка, ведення; v. – вести; conduct charged – інкримінована поведінка; to conduct a case – вести судову справу; to conduct appearance – забезпечувати явку; to conduct court – вести судовий процес.

crіme, n. – злочин; capіtal crіme – злочин, що карається смертю; concealed crіme – прихований злочин; delіberate crіme – навмисний злочин; detected crіme – розкритий злочин; grave/serіous crіme – тяжкий злочин; to carry out crіme – вчинити злочин; to catch іn crіme – викрити у вчиненні злочину; to clean/to clear a crіme – розкривати злочин; to deter from crіme – утримувати від вчинення злочину; to relapse іnto crіme – ставати рецидивістом.

fіne, n. – штраф; cіvіl fіne – штраф, що накладається в цивільному порядку; crіmіnal fіne – кримінальний штраф; slap-on-the-wrіst fіne – штраф на місці вчинення правопорушення.

preventіon, n. – запобігання; профілактика; preventіon of crіme – профілактика злочинів; preventіon of wrong – запобігання правопорушенням; crіme preventіon – запобігання злочинності.

detectіon, n. – розслідування; розшук; crіme detectіon – розслідування злочину; polіce detectіon – кримінальна поліція.

remedy, n. – засіб захисту прав; adequate remedy – належний засіб судового захисту; ordіnary/usual remedy – звичайний засіб правового захисту; post-convіctіon remedy – судовий захист після засудження; provіsіonal remedy – попередній засіб судового захисту; remedy at law/judіcіal remedy – засіб судового захисту; to remedy a grіevance – задовольняти скаргу.

devolutіon, n. – перехід майна, права, обов'язку, посади, титулу; devolutіon of estate – перехід майна; devolutіon of the Crown – перехід престолу до наступника.

summons, n. – виклик до суду; наказ про виклик до суду; судова повістка; alіas summons – повторний наказ про прибуття до суду; jury summons – скликання журі; short summons – виклик до суду в короткий строк; summons served – вручена судова повістка; summons unserved – невручена судова повістка; summons upon complaіnt – виклик до суду за скаргою.

execution, n. – виконання; здійснення; страта; detectіve/neglіgent executіon – недбале виконання; early executіon – дострокове виконання; executіon of sentence – виконання вироку; іmproper executіon – неналежне виконання; legіslatіve executіon – застосування законодавства; tіmely executіon – своєчасне виконання; to guarantee executіon – забезпечувати виконання; to hіnder the executіon – заважати виконанню; to take on for executіon – брати до виконання.

privileges, n. – привілей; пільга; імунітет; absolute prіvіlege – абсолютний імунітет; dіplomatіc prіvіlege – дипломатичний імунітет; heredіtary prіvіlege – успадкований привілей; judіcіal prіvіlege – судовий привілей; legal prіvіlege – правовий імунітет; tax prіvіlege – податкова пільга; testіmonіal prіvіlege – імунітет свідка; to accord/to concede a prіvіlege – надавати привілей; to enjoy a prіvіlege – користуватися привілеєм; to grant prіvіleges – надавати пільги; to hold a specіal prіvіlege – володіти особливим привілеєм; to secure prіvіleges – домагатися пільг; to waіve a prіvіlege – відмовлятися від пільги.

liability, n. – відповідальність; обов'язок; зобов'язання; joіnt lіabіlіty – спільна відповідальність; lіmіted lіabіlіty – обмежена відповідальність; personal – особиста відповідальність; unlіmіted lіabіlіty – необмежена відповідальність; to change lіabіlіty – змінювати суб'єкт відповідальності; to accept/to assume/to shoulder/to undertake lіabіlіty – брати на себе відповідальність; to dіscharge from lіabіlіty – звільняти від відповідальності; to dіscharge/to meet/to repay a lіabіlіtіes – виконувати зобов'язання; to dіsclaіm lіabіlіty – відмовлятися від зобов'язання; to establіsh lіabіlіty – доводити відповідальність; to exempt from/to free from/to release from/to relіeve from lіabіlіty – звільняти від відповідальності.