II. The material to be read for the seminar

Complex sentences are structures of subordination with two or more immediate constituents which are not syntactically equivalent – one of them is the principal clause to which the other is joined as a subordinate clause either by subordinating connectors or asyndetically. The Principal clause dominates the subordinate clause positionally, but it doesn’t mean that by its syntactic status it must express the central informative part of communication. Of all the problems discussed in linguistic literature in connection with the complex sentence, the central one concerns the principles of classification of subordinate clauses. Usually the classification of complex sentence is based on the type of the subordinate clause, its functions and meaning, and also on the conjunctions and connecting words. Subordinate clauses are correlative with parts of the sentence, but unlike the latter, they express the idea of an object, quality or circumstances in a way of a certain situation, which finds its expression in the subject-predicate structure. Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses, attributive clauses and adverbial clauses.

Nominal clauses function as nouns in various syntactical positions. They are subdivided into subject clauses, predicate clauses and object clauses. Thus a subject clause performs the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal clause which is devoid of its own subject. Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the conjunctions that, if whether; who, what, which; when, where, how, why. Complex sentences with subject clauses may be of two patterns:

1. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the principal clause. For example: What she loved best in the world just then was riding. (Galsworthy)

2. With a subject clause in a final position. In such cases it is introduced by the anticipatory it. For example: It was evident that he didn’t understand the essence of the matter. (London)

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The link-verb is in the principal clause. The predicative clause together with the link-verb forms a compound nominal predicate to the subject of the principal clause. Predicative clauses are introduced by the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, who, what, which, when, where, how, why.

Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:

1. They may follow the principal clause in which the subject is a notional word. The predicative clause then gives a qualitative characteristic of the subject. For example: The thing to be settled on now is whether anything can be done to save him. (Dreiser)

2. Predicative clauses may follow the principal clause in which the subject is expressed by the personal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation. For example: It seems as if all these years I had been living under false pretences. (Cronin.)

Object clauses have the function of an object to the predicate of a principal clause. Object clauses can be introduced asyndetically or by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether; who, what, which; when, where, how, why. For example: 1. He said there was nothing much the matter with me. (Maxwell.) 2. She wondered whether Steve knew or understood what had happened. (Gordon) 3. He wondered why he should look back… (Wilson)

Object clauses may also refer:

1) to a non-finite form of the verb (an infinitive, a gerund, a participle): 1. I formed the habbit of calling on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard. (Leacock) 2. I ventured on asking why he was in such a hurry to get back to town. (Collins) 3. Mr. Bruff looked my way apparently wondering whether I did or did not mean to leave him alone with my aunt. (Collins.);

2) to some adjectives expressing desire, feeling, perception, assurance (anxious, certain, sure, jealous, sorry, pleased) and to statives (afraid, aware). For example: 1. They were not sure what the morrow would bring forth. (Dreiser) 2. She was aware that someone else was there. (Eliot.) 3. The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding. (Collins)

An object clause may be introduced by a preposition. E. g.: I am always ready to listen to whatever you may wish to disclose. (Eliot)

As a rule object, subject and predicative clauses are not separated by a comma from the principal clause.