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7.1.2 The effect of language and learning: Criticisms of studies supporting genetically based facial recognition.

Birdwhistell (1970) argued that emotional expressions are learned in the process of socialization. Later Russell (1994) noted that the idea of universality was itself imprecise, and could not be completely divorced from the effects of cultural diffusion. In particular he was critical of the lack of control for language. When respondents had a free choice in terms and descriptive sentences facial recognition of emotion tends to be lower than those employing the Ekman model. According to Russell only very broad cluster of emotional terms produced similar results to those found in the original Ekman studies. The main criticism of the Ekman model is that research using photographs tells us little about facial expressions occurring naturally in social relationships and fail to take into account the social context of emotions. Russell argued that emotion categories are somewhat dependent on unique features of language, and facial emotion recognition can only be understood within broad dimensional categories similar to those found for the semantic differential by Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum (1957), but not by using narrow emotional labels of the basic emotions (Russell, 1991).

Izard (1994) in responding to Russell however, noted that research on innate facial expressions are about much more than verbal descriptions, and have been observed in infants long before language had any effects. Russell’s criticisms, Izard maintains, are about the universality of semantic descriptions, but not the relationship of facial expressions to biology. Further, Ekman (1994) argued that universality in recognition of emotions do not require perfect concordance in judgment, only statistically significant agreement. The matching of words to reactions that are neurocultural cannot be expected to be perfect. Later, Ekman (1998) wrote that studies supporting the learned basis of facial emotional expressions were primarily anecdotal and lacked scientific credibility. Others (Haidt & Keltner, 1999) presented photographs of the basic emotions to respondents in India and the U.S. and found results that supported Ekman and his colleagues. Alternative methodologies have also been employed in studying the development of facial expressions in childhood, and other researchers have examined the similarity between human facial reactions with the expressions of nonhuman primates. Both lines of research have supported the conclusion that emotional expressions are hardwired from birth (Oster, 2005; Parr, Waller, Vick, & Bard, 2007).

Nevertheless researchers have disagreed about the source of basic emotional facial expressions, whether they are learned spontaneously through the mechanism of social learning or are automatic and dependent only on biology. Do universally recognized facial expressions occur because of similar learning processes across cultures or do they reflect biological constants. Some researchers argue that universality could result from similar social learning processes as children learn to express emotions spontaneously and automatically from watching others. From this perspective children learn to smile at happy events, because they see others doing so and experience reinforcement for context correct responses (Feldman, & Russell, 1999; Fernandez-Dols & Ruiz-Belda, 1997).

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