1.6.2 Animal and human culture.

Culture is a response of human groups to the environment seeking to develop solutions to problems of adaptation. Since animals and indeed all life also have to adapt to survive it can be argued that animals too have culture. The cooperation of a wolf pack in hunting or herd animals in protecting their vulnerable members are a form of culture that serves adaptive needs. Animals have also evolved hierarchies and social behaviors like grooming. In modern times we have become aware of animals that use tools like the chimpanzee employment of sticks to fish for termites (Whiten, Horner, & De Waal, 2005). Animals too have evolved solutions to adapt and meet basic requirements of survival (Boesch, 2003).

Yet there are complexities in human culture not found in the animal world. Although animals can communicate they don’t possess a language that can symbolize the physical and mental worlds. The very ability to write and reduce language to symbols on paper is a unique human act. The ability to attribute intentions to other people and therefore predict their behavior appears to be another unique human trait. Human culture is constantly evolving by means of more adaptive solutions to survival. The current knowledge explosion is a manifestation of this unique human trait to improve life and seek meaning. In general human existence demonstrates an increasingly complex evolution toward more adaptive responses (Tomasello, Kruger, & Ratner, 1993). The process of human culture is toward increasing complexity and variation in the development of adaptive tools.

1.6.3 The ecological and sociological context.

Other researchers (e.g. Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 1992) have argued for a broader etiology in the development if culture. The ecological context is important since it places limits on what is possible for example the variability in the resources that help groups survive. In arid climates skills other than agriculture is needed for humans to have reproductive success. The presence and quality of food has significant influence on human development. Where food is not present in sufficient quantities there is less population density with other important ramifications for the development of society. The socio-political context that defines people’s ability to participate in decisions at both the local as well as national and international level is important. Some societies have very little decision latitude and conformity is required for survival. Through generational transmissions an authoritarian ideology develops that ensure cultural survival although not without conflict.

The ecological context is vital in the development of culture. The climate and other ecological factors impact psychology of people directly. In a country where the resources are few survival demands the cooperation of all, whereas in a society with abundant resources there is less need for cooperation. Climate is also a significant factor affecting production and daily activities. When this author worked in the tropical regions of Australia he noted how slowly people moved in the street and at work. After acclimatizing a few days the reason became obvious as movement was determined by the oppressive heat and humidity. Some will argue that climate directly affects the evolution of humans (Behrensmeyer, 2006).

The sociological approach utilizes a structural analysis in understanding culture. Some theories argue that influential cultural structures exist independent of the individual and shape behavior. The norms of society developed out of the need for survival and social stability, and once in place demand obedience from all members. Cultural norms define limits of behavior and regulate society for the benefit of those who have coercive power, and at times also in the interest of all. Collectivistic societies produced a unifying morality and a strong sense of belonging. In the more individualistic society traditions are often overturned breaking down the sense of human solidarity. In extreme situations or in crisis individualism promotes the idea of “every man for himself”. That notion is expressed in rational capitalist societies by the values of efficiency and achievement. While the technological revolution is an example of what a rational society can achieve, unfortunately one byproduct is abiding inequality between people. The Marxist critique contend that the ruling classes not only preserve a favored status quo, but also develop an appropriate ideology, create laws, religion and political systems that perpetuate the inequality.