5.6.2 The affect of bilingualism.

Is has become quite common for people to speak multiple languages with information technology bringing cultures closer and immigration creating a need for second languages (Baker & Prys, 1998). Although globalization has supported English as a world language, most people speak at least one other language fluently. Today bilingualism is a reality for many if not for most people, and not the exception as it was in times past and the use of multiple languages contributes to a more complex and rich linguistic knowledge. Language is symbolic of the culture that creates it, and therefore if a people know two or more languages they also possess two or more mental representations of the meaning of the constructs used in language. An important issue is whether the unique cultural constructs associated with a language causes bilingual people to change their mental representation when shifting from one language to another? Hull, (1989, 1990) administered the California Personality Inventory to bilinguals under language appropriate conditions. The results showed that the respondents displayed different personalities depending on which language was employed in the test. Manifestations of different personalities were thought the outcome of the respondents identifying with the stereotypes of each language culture producing trait emphasis reflecting in test differences.

Bilinguals are thought to engage in cultural code switching, moving back and forth between culturally defined meanings associated with the language spoken (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000). Even the attribution style used was dependent on the language spoken as in one study Americans made more individual attributions when primed whereas Chinese bilinguals used more culturally consistent collectivistic images (Benet-Martinez, Leu, Lee, & Morris, 2002).

Bilingualism contributes to higher intelligence when controlling for social and economic factors (Lambert & Anisfeld, 1969). Bilingual children are advanced in creativity, the ability to think divergently, and demonstrate more cognitive complexity (Segalowitz, 1980). The interaction of languages within the individual creates also higher sensitivity to ambiguities in sentences and a greater awareness of intonation as a clue to meaning (Mohanty, 1994). Those of you that know more than one language may also have observed that bilingualism makes the learning of other new languages easier, probably by the discernment of overlap of lexical and grammatical content (Thomas, 1988).

Bilingual people who have professional experience in more than one country are among the most desired managers and CEOs in multinational corporations. They demonstrate the ability to work in a globalized world and more easily bridge relations with peers and employees from different cultures (Muna, & Zennie, 2010).

5.7 Nonverbal communication and culture.

Speakers utilize an array of nonverbal signals to convey meaning when communicating. Facial expressions, pitch, silence, gestures, interpersonal distance, body postures and touching others all communicate or emphasize aspects of the spoken word. The major part of any communication is nonverbal conveying especially important meanings about emotional states. Nonverbal signals carry specific messages and help illustrate the meaning of the communication as well as regulating the flow of speech (Ekman & Friesen, 1969; Gordon, 2004).

Differences in required interpersonal space are easily observed when travelling to various cultures in the world. Hall (1976) suggested that the need for interpersonal space depends on the relationship between the speakers which he divided into four levels from intimate (e.g. between mothers and child) to personal (within friendship or family) to social (among acquaintances) and in public arenas (among relative strangers). Cultural differences in the desire for interpersonal space have been found between Arab men who require less space when compared to American males (Watson & Graves, 1966). Likewise Latin students also required less physical space when interacting compared to European students (Forston & Larson, 1968). It would not raise an eyebrow when Arab men walk hand in hand in their culture, whereas such behavior would create very different meanings in Western societies. It is a curious irony that Americans are very informal in their verbal speech, but do not allow others to be close in interpersonal space.

Cultural differences also exist in terms of another form of nonverbal behavior - the chronemics. Hall defines two time systems essential for the efficient intercultural communication: monochronic and polychronic time. The monochronic time system is prevalent in the countries located in Northern Europe, and North America where time is perceived as something tangible and people speak of it as something that can be “spent”, “saved”, “wasted” and “lost”. Time is used as a framework for organizing life through schedules in which all important life activities of individuals, except birth and death, are planned and prioritized. Typical characteristic in these cultures is putting career first and performing only one activity at a time, which require careful planning and adherence to preset schedules.

Hall argues that unlike monochronic cultures dominated by short-term relationships members of polychronic cultures (such as Hispanics and Arabs) maintain long-term relationships with wider range of people simultaneously. These relations are valued much more than time schedules and deadlines, and therefore in polychronic cultures nothing is firmly established, but flexible and constantly changing. Appointments can be changed even at the last minute in service of someone more important in the hierarchy of family, friends or partners. In these cultures monochronic time is used only when appropriate.

Gestures are also nonverbal communication that conveys a great deal of information. Efron (1941) found distinct gesture differences between Italian and Jewish immigrants that disappeared with assimilation into American culture. The presence of many gestural differences in varying cultures has been supported by research (Morris, Collett, Marsh, & O’Shaughnessy, 1980). To know these gestures is somewhat important as what may be a socially supportive gesture utilizing raised fingers in one society, may be an obscene signal in another. Societies also vary in the amount of time and in the intensity of gazing (Fehr & Exline, 1987). Gazing is connected with expression of emotions, in a love relationship it may communicate affection and concern, and in other relationships gazing can indicate aggression and dominance. Rules for gazing are articulated by cultures since aggression and loving relationships are salient to cultural stability. People from Arabic cultures are more direct in gazing and gaze longer compared to Americans. This led Watson (1970) to classify 30 countries to be contact cultures that not only facilitated physical touch, but also more gazing, touching, and required less interpersonal distance when compared to no contact societies. It is apparent that culture plays an important role in contributing to differences in the meaning of nonverbal behavior.