1.5 All groups with a significant history have culture

All organizations with a history have cultural values. These values are often passed by the founder defining the normative context of behavior and ethics of the organization. Organizations take a variety of forms in modern society from political parties, to religious organizations or even gangs. All lasting groups have either explicit norms that govern behavior, or implicit rules that people conform to in order to stay a member.

The differences between males and females within societies are also reinforced by varying gender cultures. Gender roles generally define what society deems to be appropriate behavior. There are large differences in gender culture between fundamentalist societies and norms found in modern liberal countries. Gender roles are impacted by the history of the larger society, and what today is considered appropriate in one society (like nude bathing) may be the subject of severe sanction in another country. In some societies women have virtually no life outside the home, whereas in others particularly in the Scandinavian countries the genders are largely treated with equality both in the workplace and in society.

The term popular culture is also used frequently today to connote popular music and dominant fashions or other fads. Since these preferences exist within groups of people popular culture share some common features that have psychological consequences. For example, the psychedelic culture of the past produced musical preferences and in some case drug dependency and addiction. Keep in mind that part of any definition of culture is the persistence of behavior over time. Since musical preferences and popularity of expressions in fashion and arts often change with the passage of time the cultural influence is likely to be limited.

1.6 Toward an inclusive definition of culture.

Culture consists of attitudes and values shared within a group that is often symbolized in explicit objects like the national flag and in music and are communicated from one generation to the next. Attitudes can take many forms from supporting political ideology to investing emotions and beliefs in religious morality norms (Larsen, 1972). Cultural values can also be manifested in the general opinions held within a society concerning a variety of objects and situations and also form the basis of attitudes toward citizens of other countries or other ethnic groups. Most groups facilitate the development of stereotypes, the generalized beliefs we have about minorities or other national groups. Cultural based values and attitudes also have behavioral components found in the customs and traditions of a society and in the roles people play in the social hierarchy. The land people live on has great culturally symbolic meaning as we can observe in the uneven contest between the Israelis and Palestinians. Clearly the same land has great symbolic meaning to both groups (Brislin, 2000).

Berry, Poortinga, Segall and Dasen (1992) defined culture by utilizing six broad categories. The descriptive perspective notes the major highlights of behaviors in a culture. The historical definition examines the traditions and other heritage of a people. The normative definition describes the values, norms and rules characteristic of the culture. From a psychological perspective problem solving approaches, learning and typical behaviors are discussed. All cultures can also be understood from a structural point in how society is organized. Finally, the genetic perspective examines the origin of a culture in either factual or mythological terms, or often a combination of both.

Baumeister (2005) focused on the information capabilities of a society that allows people to cope with the environment and satisfy a variety of physical and psychological needs. Culture is what allows people to live together in an organized way and provide rules and rituals establishing a sense of social solidarity. Culture is transmitted from one generation to the next, but not without alteration. The music and dance of society is what contributes to meaning and a sense of continuity. Culture encompasses more than meeting needs for survival although that is essential. Culture and the resources available determine our food consumption and the type of shelters developed. Culture also largely determines how we meet members of the opposite sex, and under what conditions we have children and provide for their protection. In some societies the issues around marriage and offspring are very strict whereas in other cultures gender relations are relaxed.

Cultures frame very complex human relationships and the behavior that is considered normal in society. Certain cultures allow people to expand their horizons thereby encouraging creativity. The development of science is a unique feature of human society, which in turn brought about exploration from the minimalist world to outer space. We are now only at the very frontiers of space knowledge and the coming decades have very exciting possibilities for the development of knowledge about the universe. None of these achievements would have been possible without the cultural contributions of mathematics and science. Improving society is a feature of human development partly a cultural product, but also the consequence of the evolution of the brain resulting in our complex cognitive abilities that enable us to learn and adapt.

It is important to remember that a person’s mental life is not only the product of culture, but that people are also free to act and exercise free will in influencing society. According to Vygotsky (1932) people are capable of goal directed behavior in interaction with the environment that he calls “activity”. Psychological states like emotion, cognition, and motivation cannot be separated from activity. In turn human activity is determined by the socio-economic, environmental, political and other cultural conditions. However, goal directed behavior interacting with the environment is itself a process that also changes human activity. Any definition of culture must take into account the interaction between goal directed human activity and cultural conditions.

It seems obvious that children who grow up under conditions of human socio-economic desperation will develop psychological traits quite different than those who are born into safe and affluent conditions. Children who are forced to combine economic dependency with mind numbing constrictions of religious or political fundamentalism will also display more conformity compared to children developing in more liberal societies. Cultures differ in the dominant activities for survival and their subsequent human psychology.

Obviously culture is a very complex concept that is relevant to many areas of life. The broad scope of culture makes any simplified definition of little use (Malpass, 1993). The concept of culture also has obviously different salient meanings. A Danish definition may refer to the food traditions, whereas in Saudi Arabia the teaching of the Koran would come to mind for most of the inhabitants.