- •Cross-cultural universal traits and the culturally specific in human behavior Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology Knud s. Larsen
- •Introduction
- •Introduction
- •Cross-cultural psychology in a changing world
- •Behavior as culture specific or universal.
- •1.2 The etic and emic approaches.
- •1.3 Cross-cultural psychology and cultural/ indigenous psychology.
- •1.4 Culture versus ethnicity and race.
- •1.5 All groups with a significant history have culture
- •1.6 Toward an inclusive definition of culture.
- •1.6.1 Culture is the evolution of human society.
- •1.6.2 Animal and human culture.
- •1.6.3 The ecological and sociological context.
- •1.7 Resource rich or poor cultures.
- •1.8 Cultural values and dimensions.
- •1.8.1 Universal values.
- •1.8.2 Cultural value dimensions.
- •1.8.3 The social axioms of Leung and Bond.
- •1.9 Enculturation, culture, and psychological outcomes.
- •1.10 Understanding cross-cultural psychology in a changing world.
- •1.11 The major objectives of cross-cultural psychology.
- •1.12 The ethnocentrism of Psychology.
- •Summary
- •Research approaches and critical thinking in cross-cultural psychology
- •2.1 Cultural bias and criterion of equivalence.
- •2.1.1 The issue of language equivalence.
- •2.1.2 Psychometric equivalence.
- •2.1.3 Selecting equivalent samples in cross-cultural psychology.
- •2.2 Nonequivalence in cross-cultural research.
- •2.3 Levels of inference.
- •2.4 Studies of cultural level ecological averages.
- •2.5 What is measured in cross-cultural research?
- •2.6 Bias in psychological assessments.
- •2.7 Inferences from statistical tests on cross-cultural comparisons.
- •2.8 Experimental versus correlational studies.
- •2.9 Qualitative and quantitative research in cross-cultural psychology.
- •2.10 Quantitative comparative cross-cultural research.
- •2.10.1 Surveys.
- •2.10.2 Experiments.
- •2.11 The problems of validity.
- •2.12 A critical look at the findings from cross-cultural comparisons.
- •2.13 Skeptical thinking is the path to an improved cross-cultural psychology.
- •Summary
- •The origin of culture: cultural transformation and sociocultural evolution
- •3.1 The case for the biological foundations of human characteristics.
- •3.1.1 Evolution and the mechanisms of transmission.
- •3.1.2 Races as a biological and social construct.
- •3.1.3 The role of adaptation.
- •3.2 The research supporting the evolution of human emotion.
- •3.2.1 Universal temperament and personality traits are evidence of common evolved history.
- •3.2.2 Intelligence as a biological and racial construct.
- •3.2.3 Behavior genetics and disease.
- •3.2.4 Hardwired optimism: The driver for cultural development.
- •3.3 Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.
- •3.3.1 Gender differences in mate selection.
- •3.3.2 Is ethnocentrism and racism a broader manifestation of inclusive fitness for reproductive success?
- •3.4 Culture matters!
- •3.5 Socio-cultural evolution: a little history.
- •3.5.1 The evolution of evolutionary theories.
- •3.5.2 Dual inheritance: Approaches to cultural transmission.
- •3.6 Theories of modernization and post-industrial society.
- •Summary
- •Human development: culture and biology
- •4.1 Socialization or enculturation?
- •4.2 Enculturation and choice.
- •4.3 Authoritative versus authoritarian childrearing approaches and cultural differences.
- •4.4 Creating the climate of home: Cultural and cross-cultural studies.
- •4.4.1 The sleeping arrangements of childhood.
- •4.4.2 Attachment in childhood.
- •4.4.3 Relationships with siblings.
- •4.4.4 The influence of the extended family and peers.
- •4.5 Culture and the educational system.
- •4.6 Socio-economic climate.
- •4.7 Social identity.
- •4.8 Comparative studies in child rearing behaviors.
- •4.9 Human development is incorporation of culture.
- •4.10 Stage theories of human development: Culturally unique or universal.
- •4.10.1 The evolution of cognition.
- •4.10.2 The evolution of moral development.
- •4.10.3 Evolution of psychosocial development.
- •4.11 Human development is the expression of biology: the presence of universal values.
- •4.12 The evolutionary basis for human behavior: Maximizing inclusive fitness.
- •4.13 Perspective in the transmission of culture.
- •Summary
- •The evolution of language and socio-culture
- •5.1 The evolution of socioculture and language.
- •5.2 Language development: the meaning of language terms and early speech.
- •5.3 Cultural language difference and linguistic relativity.
- •5.4 Cultural language and thought.
- •5.5 Universals in language.
- •5.6 Intercultural communication.
- •5.6.1 Obstacles and uncertainty reduction in intercultural communication.
- •5.6.2 The affect of bilingualism.
- •5.7 Nonverbal communication and culture.
- •5.8 Darwinian evolution and phylogenetic trees of language and socio-cultural evolution.
- •5.8.1 Selective group genetic advantages in cultural evolution.
- •5.8.2 The analogy of genetic and cultural evolution.
- •5.9 The tree branching of cultural traits.
- •5.10 Limitations of genetic and cultural co-evolutionary theory: Horizontal and vertical cultural evolution.
- •5.11 Cultural stability: Processes countering cultural evolution.
- •5.11.1 Migration and cultural stability.
- •5.11.2 Conformity and geographical mechanisms affecting cultural evolution and language development.
- •5.12 Social learning: Imitating success.
- •5.13 Religion, agriculture development and cultural evolution.
- •5.14 Phylogenetic evidence of the socio-cultural origins of language and other cultural traits.
- •5.14.1 Tracing the evolution of languages.
- •5.14.2 Evidence of language evolution.
- •5.15 Culture as a function of evolving information.
- •5.16 How did language evolve?
- •5.16.1 Contacts between different language speakers.
- •5.16.2 Artefactual languages.
- •Cognition: our common biology and cultural impact
- •6.1 Culture and cognition.
- •6.1.1 Sensation and perception.
- •6.1.2 Cultural impact on sensation and perception.
- •6.2 Cognitive development.
- •6.3 Cognitive style and cultural values.
- •6.3.1 Field dependent and independent cognitive style.
- •6.3.2 Perception studies and cognitive style.
- •6.3.3 Collectivistic and individualistic cognition.
- •6.3.4 Greek versus Asian thinking style.
- •6.3.5 Dialectical and logical thinking.
- •6.3.6 Authoritarianism and dogmatism as a cognitive style.
- •6.4 The general processor implied in cognitive styles versus contextualized cognition.
- •6.5 Cognitive style and priming cognition.
- •6.6 Cross-cultural differences in cognition as a function of practical imperatives.
- •6.7 Intelligence and adaptation: general and cross-cultural aspects.
- •6.7.1 Definitions of general intelligence.
- •6.7.2 Nature or nurture: What determines intelligence?
- •6.7.3 Sources of bias in intelligence testing.
- •6.7.4 Socioeconomic differences and fairness.
- •6.7.5 Race and the interaction effect.
- •6.8 The use of psychological tests in varying cultures.
- •6.9 How intelligence is viewed in other cultures.
- •6.10 General processes in higher order cognition and intelligence.
- •6.10.1 Categorization.
- •6.10.2 Memory functions.
- •6.10.3 Mathematical abilities.
- •6.10.4 The ultimate pedagogical goal: Creativity.
- •Summary
- •Emotions and human happiness: universal expressions and cultural values
- •7.1 The universality of emotions: Basic neurophysiological responses.
- •7.1.1 How we understand the emotion of others: Facial expressions.
- •7.1.2 The effect of language and learning: Criticisms of studies supporting genetically based facial recognition.
- •7.1.3 The definitive answer to the source of the facial expressions of emotions: Biology is the determinant.
- •7.1.4 Universal agreement and cultural emphasis in other emotion constructs.
- •7.1.4.1 Antecedents of emotions.
- •7.1.4.2 Vocalization and intonation in emotional expression.
- •7.1.4.3 Appraisal of emotion.
- •7.2 The role of culture in emotional reactions.
- •7.2.1 The display of emotions.
- •7.2.2 Individualistic versus collectivistic cultures: Display rules in emotion intensity and negativity ratings.
- •7.2.3 Personal space and gestures: Cultural influences in non-verbal communication.
- •7.2.4 Cross-cultural differences in evaluating emotions in other people.
- •7.3. The cultural context of emotional communication.
- •7.4 Toward a positive psychology of emotion: Happiness and well-being.
- •7.4.1 Methodological issues in definitions of happiness and well-being.
- •7.4.2 Sources of well-being.
- •7.4.3 The trending of happiness scores and economic crises and transitions.
- •7.4.4 The impact of culture on happiness and subjective well-being.
- •7.4.5 Creating social policies that promote well-being.
- •7.4.6 The role of national and local government.
- •Personality theory: western, eastern and indigenous approaches
- •8.1 Western thoughts on personality.
- •8.1.1 Freud’s contributions.
- •8.1.2 The humanistic approach to personality.
- •8.1.3 Social-cognitive interaction theory.
- •8.1.4 Locus of control
- •8.1.5 Cross-cultural research on locus of control and autonomy: In control or being controlled.
- •8.1.6 Personality types and hardwired foundations.
- •8.1.7 The Big Five.
- •8.1.8 The genetic and evolutionary basis of personality.
- •8.1.9 Is national character a psychological reality?
- •8.2 Eastern thoughts about personality.
- •8.2.1 The Buddhist tradition.
- •8.2.2 The self and causation.
- •8.2.3 Buddhism and consciousness.
- •8.2.4 Buddhism as a therapeutic approach.
- •8.2.5 A critical thought.
- •8.3 Confucian perspective on personality and the self.
- •8.4 Culture specific personality: As seen from the perspective of indigenous cultures.
- •8.5 Some evaluative comments on Confucianism and indigenous psychology.
- •Summary
- •Culture, sex and gender
- •10.1 Culture and gender.
- •10.1.1 Sex roles, gender stereotypes, and culture.
- •10.1. 2 Gender and families.
- •10.1.3 Traditional versus egalitarian sex role ideologies.
- •10.2 Gender stereotypes and discrimination against women.
- •10.2.1 Dissatisfaction with body image.
- •10.2.2 Equal work equal pay?
- •10.3 Violence against women: a dirty page of history and contemporary society.
- •10.3.1 Intimate violence: The ubiquitous nature of rape.
- •10.3.2 Sexual exploitation.
- •10.3.3 Gender justice and the empowerment of women.
- •10.3.4 Gender ability differences and the role of culture.
- •10.3.5 Culture and Gender differences in spatial abilities.
- •10.3.6 Current research on gender differences in mathematical abilities.
- •10.3.7 Gender and conformity.
- •10.3.8 Gender and aggression.
- •10.4 Sexual behavior and culture.
- •10.4.1 Mate selection.
- •10.4.2 Attractiveness and culture.
- •10.4.3 The future of love and marriage.
- •Summary
- •Culture and human health
- •12.1 The injustice of health disparities in the world.
- •12.1.1 Socio-economic disparities and well-being.
- •12.1.2 Mental health among ethnic minorities: Injustice in the United States.
- •12.1.3 Migrants, refugees and stress: Mental health outcomes.
- •12.2 The role of culture.
- •12.2.1 Cultural health beliefs.
- •12.2.2 Problems in cultural definitions of abnormality and mental illness
- •12.3 Psychopathology as universal or relativist.
- •12.4 Culturally specific and universal factors in mental health.
- •12.4.1 Anxiety disorders.
- •12.4.2 Regulation of mood: Depression.
- •12.4.3 Schizophrenia.
- •12.4.4 Attention deficit disorder.
- •12.4.5 Personality disorders.
- •12.5 Culturally sensitive assessment of abnormal behavior.
- •12.6 Cross-cultural assessments of mental disorder.
- •12.7 Abnormal behavior and psychotherapy from cultural perspectives.
- •12.7.1 The cultural framework matters in psychotherapy.
- •12.7.2 Homogeneity of patient and therapist.
- •12.7.3 Approaches based in indigenous forms of treatment.
- •12.7.4 Adding the biomedical model to indigenous beliefs.
- •Summary
Summary
This chapter addressed the research on the origin and transmission of culture. Understanding the origin of culture would respond to many perplexing issues that define us as being human including the evolution of religion, ideology, and life itself. Culture is the complex interaction of biological imperatives with cultural information and transmitted across generations. While other species possess some form of culture, humans have the unique ability to attribute intent to others and utilize symbolic representations. Culture plays a role in survival by creating systems of communication and establishing social structures to enhance the well-being of the community. Our biological foundation requires an evolutionary explanation of human psychology, and both genetic inheritance and cultural evolution must be taken into account to present a full explanation. From the evolutionary perspective when heritable traits increase the chance of survival and reproductive success their frequency in the gene pool and improved reproductive fitness also increases. The natural selection of reproductive fitness is created by the interaction of individuals and cultural groups with their physical and social environments. However, the longer life cycle of humans produce a stronger influence of cultural factors including the social decisions causing migration and the geographic isolation of human groups and the subsequent social rules for selective mate choices.
The construct “race” has both biological and social meanings. Geographic isolation, the stronger effects of the initial gene pool of the immigrant group, and cultural choices favoring ingroup members in mate choices explains the development of phenotypical race categorization. Commonly skin tone is used in defining race, although that is the least useful discriminatory tool as it is a selective evolutionary response to sunlight. Humans with genetic mutations for light skin had selective advantages in northern climates, although the current evidence is that we all arrived from a geneographic journey out of Africa. The changes produced by natural selection are called adaptation. However, it is important to remember we are not just shaped by the environment, but we also work to change it by creating niches for survival and culture.
There is now much research that supports the evolution of human motivation and characteristics. The universal presence of emotions lends support to a genetic basis or architecture of human traits. Emotions provide context to our lives and help us evaluate situations, events and social interaction. However, in contrast with other species humans have the capacity for self-reflection and have morally based emotions. Nevertheless, universal types of temperament and personality traits are evidence of our commonly evolved history. Temperament is present at birth and creates consistencies in individual responses across varying situations. Research supports the presence of universal traits of personality structured in five dimensions also called the Big Five. Heritability is determined by comparing correlations of closely related individuals with those less closely related. Heritability estimates (proportion attributed to genetic factors) is .50 for extraversion-introversion. The results are consistent across cultures presenting a universal model of personality structure that is independent of culture and therefore suggesting an evolutionary mechanism.
Intelligence is also a biological and social construct. Estimates of heritability for intelligence is higher than for the aforementioned personality structures yielding scores around .75. The effect of the heritability of intelligence increases with age as the influence of family and other environmental factors fade away. Unfortunately heritability estimates have been used in the social debate over programs intended to help disadvantaged groups. Some proponents argue that since intelligence is the major factor explaining success in society, and since it is largely determined by genes, social programs to help racial minorities who are limited by heritability are of little utility. However, these flawed arguments do not reflect the reality of the heritability of intelligence. Any population difference in intelligence test scores are impossible to validate since there is always an interaction between genes and the environment. Further, heritability estimates from individual scores cannot be used to evaluate the inherent basis of group or national differences. Further, since we only measure actualized potential, we know nothing of non-actualized potential. Also, all intelligence testing contain measurement problems that include test items not equally familiar to the members of all the cultural groups tested. However, the relationship between behavior genetics and disease is established in cases like Down’s syndrome, and is also implicated in major mental illnesses like schizophrenia.
The role of heritability can also be observed in recent research on hard wired optimism. Humans appear to share a universal bias toward optimism and more so than justified by reality. This persistent optimism is considered essential for survival and cultural progress as it allows us to see alternative futures and thereby stimulate innovation, exploration, and the motivation of our efforts. The suggestion is strong that optimism is based on neural mechanisms that are hardwired into our brains to increase our chances for survival.
Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology have had a great impact on the discussion around cultural evolution. Most people have first hand observation of evolution in animals, as dogs, cows and bulls have been bred for selective purposes. In animals behavior patterns appear to be under the control of genes. Ethologists have also observed many similarities between animal and universal human behavior. Sociobiologists would argue that genetic mechanisms are the grammar or architecture of the brain that explain the human communality. These mechanisms in turn interact with culture to produce the variances we observe in different societies. Sociobiology explains human behavior as a response to evolutionary pressures, and in particular the need to ensure reproductive success of those closely related to us called inclusive fitness.
Gender differences follow a pattern predicted by sociobiology. For example men find reproductive success through a variety of partners, whereas for women pair bonding is essential to ensure the protection of children. Following the same kind of thinking females have a greater interest in the financial prospects of their male partners, whereas males seek youthful appearance suggesting fertility.
Is ethnocentrism and racism also manifestations of motivation caused by a desire for the reproductive success of near kin or inclusive fitness? The sociobiologist would argue that we must understand all psychological functioning from the perspective of reproductive fitness. Therefore attitudes toward members of ingroups and outgroups may be a special manifestation of the desire for inclusive fitness and motivated by the unconscious desire that our genes survive and prosper. Nazism was and is a perverted form of social Darwinism that emphasized inclusive fitness through genocide. The pan-European ideology of the Norwegian mass murder Breivik can be understood in the same light.
However, culture matters. The evolutionary basis of higher cognitive functioning does not exclude a role for cultural shaping of behavior or individually based motivation. The biological origin of the structure of personality still requires adaptation to specific cultural values that shape varying emphasizes. The universality of the structure of traits does not reduce the significance of culture. Culture probably provided the initial impetus that increased longevity, and that in turn allowed for further cultural improvements.
Sociocultural evolution as a field has rested on biology as a model to explain similar mechanisms in both biological evolution and in the origin of social behavior. The classical theorists made sweeping assumptions about the nature of progress and forward movement of culture. The proposed stages of sociocultural evolution have been criticized as being illusionary. Further, social evolution was also used as a covering ideology for social dominance by elite societies in the world. Modern theories have been more careful to avoid ethnocentrism and tend to view societies as developing within their own historical contexts. Neo-evolutionism discarded the rigid determinism of the classical thinkers and emphasized instead the role of probability, free will, and accidental happenings in the evolution of society. Sociobiologists argued that humans are the product of both biological and cultural evolution.
Recent researchers have produced dual inheritance and cultural transmission models. Some based their conclusions on quantitative models similar to the mathematics of population genetics in studying the frequency of cultural traits and evidence of cultural evolution. Other researchers advocated dual transmission of genetic information and also culture by means of social learning and imitation. More complex theories followed that recognized the ability of humans to modify their environments and produce niches essential to survival and reproductive success. All these conceptions were based on evolutionary principles that viewed cultural evolution as the selection of traits functional to adaptation to both physical and cultural environments.
More recently we have seen new modernization theories of cultural transmission and of post-industrial society. In many ways these conceptions returned to the emphasis of the classical thinkers including establishing Western society a model for the aspiration of developing countries. It is argued that with technological assistance all societies will eventually reach the same or similar levels of prosperity. In many ways the current world economy reflect modernist thinking as the faith in efficacy of technological change is ubiquitous. Post-industrial societies are characterized by mega-trends including globalization that fundamentally alter culture in most societies in the world. The current economic crisis in the world supports the view that evolution of society is not lineal.
Chapter 4