Summary

This chapter provides an overview of the major concepts and issues in cross-cultural psychology. Recent social developments have produced cultural diversity and multi-cultural societies that in turn have expanded an interest in comparative psychology. Cross-cultural psychology is a comparative approach that examines the parameters of general psychological variables in the cultural context. As humans we have much in common based on a similar genetic heritage that is also the basis of universal human traits. Evidence points to the presence of common structures in personality.

The perspective of absolutism argues that people are the same everywhere and therefore there is no need for comparative studies. From that point of view researchers need only ensure accurate translations when studying behavior in various cultures. Relativity is the opposite viewpoint that all human behavior is conditioned by the cultural context and therefore psychological assessments must be based on valid conceptual foundations that are unique to a culture. The outlook found between these extreme points of view is called universalism, essentially arguing that although basic psychological phenomenon is common to all human beings, the development of these and manifestations of behavior are culturally determined. The concepts of emic and etic describe the difference between universal and culturally specific behavior perspectives.

Cross-cultural and cultural psychology reflects these different perspectives. Cross-cultural psychology utilizes the comparative approach in trying to understand human behavior in a globalized world with still diverse values and norms. We define cross-cultural psychology as general psychology in the comparative cultural context since the subject area includes major topics of interest in psychology. The aim is to develop a science applicable to all cultures in the world. Cultural psychology on the other hand is more anthropological as it seeks to understand in depth behavior within a given single culture. Some researchers argue that cultural psychology should be the precursor to the development of an eventual multicultural single psychology valid for all cultures.

Several concepts are used to denote culture with somewhat varying meanings. Cultural ethnicity is not the same as nationality since many different ethnic groups can exist within a single nation. Race as commonly understood refers primarily to visual morphological traits that play no role in human behavior, but because race is a social construct it plays a role in discrimination. A more accurate accounting of race would require the determination of gene frequency distributions. It is important to remember that there are always more within group variability compared to differences between racial or other social categories on any psychological dimension.

However, all groups with a history have culture defining normative behaviors, ethics and values. Genders are also believed to have attributes that meet the test of cultural significance, especially defining what is considered appropriate gender-related behavior. In popular terms culture may also refer to passing fads and fashion and while these may have psychological consequences they generally have no lasting effect.

An inclusive definition of culture requires a consideration of individual influences that mediate the social and ecological context. Cultures consist of attitudes and values expressed in ideology and religion as well as in the socio-economic system. Culture is what allows people to live together in an organized fashion and establishes the parameters of complex human relationships. Cultural products are an outcome of norms that either encourages or discourages creativity and invention. While mental life is one of the products of culture it is well to remember that human beings have volition and are motivated by goal directed behavior. In all cases individual volition interacts with culture.

Culture is the result of social evolution and the direct outcome of reproductive success. In the past cultures allowed people to survive by developing social hierarchies, by protecting its members, and by helping people master the natural world. Sociobiology is the field that links biology to culture as the means to survival in varying ecological contexts. Natural selection ensures that those who are “fit” are more likely to survive than individuals that are less adaptive. As a result genetically based traits that favor survival are encoded in genes and passed from one generation to the next.

Animals can also be defined as having culture since some species cooperate in order to survive as they adapt to the environment. Still the complexities that characterize human culture are not found in the animal world. Humans possess language that permits mental symbolization and the attribution of intentions not present among animals. An inclusive definition of culture must take into account the ecological context of society. The ecological conditions place limits on what members of a culture can do to ensure reproductive success. Climate pressures and the quantity and quality of nutrition contribute to the cultural framework that is developed and may also directly affect the evolution of human beings. In the final analysis it is the interaction between people and the environment that produces culture.

Cultural characteristics develop from the human relationship to quantity and quality of resources. The presence of ample resources alone does not guarantee positive cultural development as that is also dependent on socio-economic conditions. Nevertheless poverty is linked to poor health and shorter life spans. Relative collectivism and individualism are factors of importance in cultivating behavioral responses in people. For example people living in the US endorse vertical individualism and the ideology of a “just” society. Hence they are more tolerant of inequality compared to people living in the social democracies in Europe.

Cultural dimensions and values have a relationship to human behavior. Some values are universal and thought present in all societies. Hofstede’s value dimensions have been used to describe societies throughout the world. Axioms are general beliefs that guide behavior. In contrast with values axioms are assertions that link concepts like the presumed relationship between religion and meaning in life.

Culture is learned through the process of enculturation and the family is the primary source of socialization, but other social institutions also play a role. Culture is the response to the major external factors that confront members of groups in the quest for survival. It is well to bear in mind that the aforementioned etiological factors interact and at the same time the world is going through a period of great socio-economic change that affect even the most isolated peoples in the world. Globalization has also produced new arenas for studying the effects of culture in the development of new multicultural societies. Cultural identity is increasingly dynamic.

The major objective of cross-cultural psychology is to examine whether established psychological theories are transportable to other cultures. An important aim is to determine the broader validity of psychological theories from a more universal perspective, but also to establish behaviors that is culturally unique and specific. Ethnocentrism also affects cross-cultural psychology as the very choice of what we study is based on the researcher’s culturally based concepts. Currently research seeks to transport culturally bounded and primarily Western knowledge into other cultures. However, bias can be reduced by following careful procedures and replicating studies over the long run.

Chapter 2