10.3.7 Gender and conformity.

The stereotype of greater female conformity was supported in a number of studies in the U.S. (Eagly & Carli, 1981). However, the overall difference was small and seemed related to situations that produced direct group pressure to which females yielded more. Since direct pressure is precisely what is meant by conformity the gender difference is not trivial (Becker, 1986; Eagly, 1987). In traditional society men were viewed as head of households making the major decisions affecting the family. In that society females played little or no role in decision making, but in the division of labor looked after children and the welfare of the household. However, these divisions of labor are in a flux given the growing emphasis on gender equality. Part of the conformity difference appears to be related to whether the domain is related to gender expertise. Results show that males conform more on issues considered female expertise like child rearing and women yield more on traditional male issues like science or politics (Sistrunk & McDavid, 1971).

Berry (1976b; 1979) using the same samples discussed above employed to investigate spatial differences also found culturally dependent differences in gender on conformity. Again females were found more conformist in cultures considered tight and less conformist in so-called looser samples. Cultures that were described as tighter (as defined above) fostered greater conformity in females since they also required greater conformity to traditional gender roles by both males and females. Therefore it is clear that the greater conformity of females is not a hardwired psychological characteristic, but rather a product of cultural organization. The role of child rearing and gender socialization are important in understanding gender differences as well as understanding why women occupy lower ranks in the social stratification of society. However, since all cultures are in flux gender-related conformity is an area of research that may well yield new outcomes and a reduction of gender differences.

10.3.8 Gender and aggression.

A common stereotype suggest that males are more aggressive, an understanding that is broadly shared in the world and by history. In fact this stereotype is present in all cultures investigated and probably for good reason (Brislin, 1993). Research supports gender differences as the vast amount of aggressive acts are committed by adolescent males (Segall, Ember, & Ember, 1997). In the case of aggression there are no culturally specific differences based on types of culture (tight or loose), and both industrialized and non-industrialized countries demonstrate the same pattern with males more aggressive (Goldstein, 1983; Bacon, Child & Barry, 1983).

Various reasons are provided for the differences in levels of aggression between genders. Male adolescents experience a rise in testosterone levels in the teen years that may explain the dominance behavior typically linked to male adolescence, and also anti-social behavior among male delinquents (Dabbs & Morris, 1990; Mazur, 1985). However, despite this apparent hardwired aggressive tendency in males culture also plays an important role. Some cultures encourage aggression and provide social learning models in the media for the expression of aggressive tendencies. For example in the U.S. a considerable amount of time is devoted to violent crimes on television and aggressive social modeling can desensitize viewers to more readily accept violence in human interaction.

Gender differences in aggression emerge partially from different socialization experiences. For example Barry, Josephson, Lauer, & Marshall, 1976) found a gender difference in the teaching of aggression in hundreds of cultures, but noted that this produced higher aggression in males in only a few very violent cultures. These results would suggest the importance of cultural factors in addition to hormones and the direct teaching of aggressive behavior. Some have suggested that aggression is a form of gender marking or assertion as the child begins the journey toward adulthood. In fact both genders can and do commit aggressive acts toward their partners in developed or Westernized nations (Archer, 2006). However, the magnitude of the gender distinction in aggression depends on the nature of the culture. Where cultures are more individualistic and empower women there is less female victimization. The division of labor between the genders created different expectations of what is considered appropriate gender related behavior, and solving problems through violence became an accepted pattern for males in many parts of the world. We can conclude by saying that since considerable differences exist between cultures in aggression such behavior is best understood as the outcome of the interaction of biological and cultural factors combined with individual psychological predispositions.