10.3.2 Sexual exploitation.

The sexual exploitation of women is another nefarious form of gender based violence. For example it is estimated that some 800000 women and girls are trafficked internationally every year for reasons of exploitation (U.S. Department of State, 2008). What facilitate these statistics are deeply grounded cultural norms that consider women as property of men to be used for their pleasure. The fact that women in many societies have few resources makes the practice of exploitation more probable and the women who are recruited often participate in prostitution in the false hope of making a better life for themselves and their families or under duress and false pretenses. Pornography is now ubiquitous in the world and in many cases women are subjected to humiliation and direct violence by participating in graphic sexuality. That pornography plays a strong role in shaping unhealthy images of women cannot be overlooked. The role of pornography can also desensitize men to violence toward women as participants falsely claim that women enjoy dominance and humiliation.

10.3.3 Gender justice and the empowerment of women.

Sexual violence has severe health consequences for women who experience emotional stress and with violence looming the constant need to be on guard. Violence directly impacts the victims causing self-blame and low self-esteem (Matud, 2005). Where violence against females is common it is difficult for women to move about in a normal way and it limits their possibilities for career development and other types of social progress. The threat of violence itself is a powerful way to control women who therefore must seek the protection of family and therefore restriction within the home. Gender based violence is not an individual or intimate matter as it grows out of cultural norms that control of women and any change in these deeply held beliefs require enforceable public policy to end abuses. An important step forward was the passing of legislation in the U.S. called Title IX that prohibited gender based discrimination in any programs funded by the federal government. This legislation opened up many possibilities for girls and women in academics and in athletics that now operate with criteria of equal funding for both genders. The achievements of women in the modern Olympic Games demonstrate the success of greater opportunities for girls and women.

Although women are traditionally stereotyped as less powerful and dominant some aspects of this attitudinal domain are changing. The American visual media have tried to create new stereotypes that take on features of the semi-comical as producers try to affect women’s cultural images by having them perform as physically powerful police officers that subject men to female dominance in television roles. However, beyond such blatant and unrealistic invasion of male physical dominance women can achieve other sources of power that are more meaningful. When women achieve and use public power the negative impact that characterize women power seekers as unfeminine (often shared by both men and women) can be defused when women emphasize the communal aspects of their leadership that is motivated by altruistic concerns (Parks-Stamm, Heilman, & Hearns, 2008).

Although only a handful of governments are headed by women some regions are more culturally prepared to accept their leadership. Again in Scandinavia women in business and government have achieved near equity in leadership positions. On the other hand in countries like Saudi Arabia or Yemen women have practically no say in public affairs or decision making. These developing cultures are dominated by male hierarchies and gender inequality is strongly supported by social norms. Cultural differences show that women must have political and cultural support to participate and function in public leadership positions. In some developing countries in Africa some objections have been overcome when women call themselves “mothers of their country” appealing to the broad cross-gender acceptance of their fundamental role in life (Anuradha, 2008).

A great deal of attention has been devoted recently to the concept of empowerment of women. In the most fundamental sense empowerment refer to women’s abilities to live their own lives by choosing self-relevant goals and by making all important decisions related to their lives. Women have sought empowerment through feminist activism over the past century. Initially the struggle in the United States and Europe led women to seek the vote and fight for universal suffrage. Equity in academics and athletics in the U.S. were largely won with the passage of Title IX. As a consequence a large number of women have entered and achieved in fields that were formerly considered men’s domain including science and law. In recent years the struggle to achieve pay equity for equal or equivalent work continues. That goal has not achieved complete success in the U.S. or elsewhere since the gender disparity is caused by cultural values that support inequality for women. In the final analysis gender equity depend in a large measure on law and policies that ban discrimination with penalties for violations.