1.8.2 Cultural value dimensions.

Hofstede (2001) examined work related values that were used to describe various societies around the world. The research constitutes one of the most cited studies in both organizational and cross-cultural psychology. Hofstede based his conclusions on data from 72 countries and 117000 thousand employees of a multinational organization that eventually generated five work-related values used to differentiate various societies. The value dimension of individualism-collectivism in turn has dominated much of the research in recent years (Gelfand, Erez, & Aycan, 2007). This research will be discussed further in chapter 11 on cultural values and organizational and social behavior.

Some cultures, particularly those in Asia, encourage collectivism where members place their own needs after the interest of the group, family and nation. The loyalty toward the ingroup is thought to be an exchange for the group caring for the individual. For example in Japan employees in the past could expect lifetime employment in exchange for their loyalty and commitment. People who inhabit collectivistic cultures are thought more likely to conform. In individualistic societies people seek fulfillment away from the workplace as members claim the right to enjoy life. Individual decisions are seen as superior to collective decision making. Since harmony is valued in collectivistic societies individuals are more likely to go along with family and group demands and seek to preserve their interpersonal relations. Triandis (1995) outlined the main attributes of individualism and collectivism. In particular the self is construed differently in the two types of culture. The personal self in individualistic societies emphasize the primacy of personal development and achievement. Based on capitalist economics individualistic societies favor exchanges in social interaction rather than the development of supportive communal relationships. On the other hand broad social norms tend to govern behavior in collectivistic cultures.

The disaster of the tsunami and all that followed showed the collectivistic spirit of Japanese culture (Beech-Akaushi, 2011). The young were quoted as saying “we, the young generation, will unite and work hard to get over this tragedy” (p.44). The world view of the Japanese is that everyone wanted to share the pain, and therefore we saw little anti-social chaos and minimal looting in the aftermath. It is also thought that the rigid adherence to regulations and rules undoubtedly saved lives, as the collectivistic minded Japanese responded to the tsunami warning and earth quake alerts.

Power distance is another value discovered in Hofstede’s research. This construct refers to hierarchical social relationships based on power and status. In general the concept of power distance refers to people’s willingness to accept the unequal distribution of power. High power distance cultures can also be described as authoritarian and hierarchal and people are expected to conform and obey. On the other had in egalitarian cultures people view each other as at least moral equals, and will find ways to object to injustice. Recent events in the Arab world show that even people in hierarchical societies eventually are fed up and rebel. Only outright tyranny enforced by the willingness to kill can keep these societies from eventually developing more democratic forms of governance. The inequality between people in high power culture societies is arbitrary although front loaded with custom and tradition. The descriptive value of the power inequality concept may therefore be limited to certain social development and historical times.

Uncertainty avoidance is also a value dimension from Hofstede’s work that describes the degree to which people feel threatened by the unknown or ambiguous conditions of life. The uncertainty of life is ubiquitous and in response to those conditions people seek security in many ways often by dogmatic interpretations of ideology or religion. However, even the most rigid model must confront changing social realities or are swept aside by their inability to satisfy human needs. Some cultures meet uncertainty by reinforcing rituals that produce a feeling of continuity over generations. Otherwise society may also enforce strict codes of conduct that makes life predictable, and develop rules that determine appropriate conduct. Rituals of greetings were probably developed to reduce uncertainty like the use of handshakes or bowing when meeting strangers or even those who are more intimate. The military hand salute developed out of the desire to show by an open hand that no hostile intent was present. Cultures vary in the degree to which they are comfortable with uncertainty often resulting in obedience behavior and conformity to political and religious institutions. However, seeking such an ersatz safety often prevents the uncertainty that is needed to nurture innovation. Progress in society is less likely without the encouragement of creativity that produce solutions to uncertainty in science and motivate other achievements. For example, entrepreneurship was related to both high individualism and low uncertainty avoidance in a nine country study (McGrath, Yang, & Tsai, 1992). Expressions of emotions are more tightly controlled in cultures that are uncertainty avoidant, and these cultures have less tolerance for discrepant ideas and people.

Hofstede called the fourth value dimension masculinity-femininity. Over the course of history men have displayed more dominance and assertiveness than women. The biological differences between the genders brought about an ubiquitous role for women as more nurturing and men being the traditional bread winners. Although sex roles have changed drastically over the past decades, they are a source of constant adjustment and conflict in many cultures. The masculinity-femininity dimension reflects the extent to which cultures continue to emphasize the traditional sex differences in everyday life and also in the work place. Some countries display few gender differences where both genders can now be employed in jobs traditionally dominated by one or the other. Societies that value masculinity emphasize recognition and achievement, and women in these societies are less accepted in higher paying jobs or those requiring strong efforts to qualify.

In more recent research Hofstede and Bond (1984) added a fifth dimension called the long-term versus short-term outlook. Essentially this value dimension measures the degree to which cultures are willing to delay gratification of various social needs. Some cultures demand immediate satisfaction, and consequently produce a rapid turnover in products. Other societies are more patient, and focus more on building relationships for the long term rather than emphasizing short term profits. These long-term cultures are more likely to encourage delay in gratification of multiple social, emotional and material needs.