If these suggestions are followed, we should he able to save

approximately $26,000 in the coming year in salaries alone. ¹²

, /Ibelieve these changes will result in greater work efficiency.

Choose from:
1. at first	first	in the first
2. thus	so	since
3 on the contrary	conversely	in contrast
4. therefore	consequently	hence
5. second	on the other hand otherwise
6. consequently	for instance	even though
7. however	in addition	as a matter of fact
8. apart from	second	moreover
9. by contrast	likewise	thus
10. although	since	so
11. finally	lastly	moreover
12. in a word	so	in addition

Exercise 9. In the following essay, the linking words and phrases are left out. Fill in each blank with any linker that makes sense.

Every day we hear about the problem of hunger in Africa. Many

authorities state causes, ' drought and overpopulation. They

1. suggest solutions, ³ food aid and population

control.

It is true that such realities as drought and overpopulation worsen the

problem of hunger in Africa. ⁴, these realities are not the real

cause of Africa’s famine. The real culprit is poverty, only by

doing something about poverty itself can we solve the hunger problem in Africa.

1 am not suggesting that we ignore the problems of drought and

overpopulation. I believe we should study them carefully in

order to learn what lies behind them. Let us look, ⁷, at drought.

Insufficient rainfall is a problem for farmers all over the world,

8 it is only the truly poor who die from it. How,

, did Africans become so poor? In the past several hundred

years, with the help of European colonizers, the best farmlands were taken and planted in cash crops for export, with profits going to a few of the wealthy.

there has not been enough food produced for the poor

majority, " it is these already hungry people who are so

affected by drought. Since food aid treats symptoms, not causes, I suggest that the only long-lasting solution to this problem lies, not in food aid, ¹² in revising Africa’s farming practices.

¹³, let’s look at the second authorities mention,

¹⁴, overpopulation. It is true that Africa’s population growth rale

is higher than that of any other continent.

¹⁴, having many children is logical for African farmers, who need a lot of workers for the family farm and who know one out of three of these children will die before adulthood. Studies from all over the world show that the best way to raise living standards is to lower birth rates.

¹⁵, when African parents can be sure their children will survive and that they can earn a decent living, they will not need to have so many of them.

¹⁶ I suggest that when we hear words drought and

overpopulation in connection with famine in Africa, let’s keep in mind the real enemy, ^l7, poverty.

Exercise 10. Complete the monologue with expressions given below.

anyway	apparently	mind you as I was saying
at least	all in all, though	admittedly of course
naturally	by the way	to tell you the truth
still	no doubt	I mean
obviously	so to speak	quite honestly
actually	gucss what?	as a matter of fact

All the A-list stars were there. That model, Angeline, (1) I

think it was Angeline, was there with her new boyfriend. (2) they’ve

been secretly going out for months. (3) , it was a glittering occasion.

Stars everywhere and the crowds outside simply begging for autographs. (4)

I couldn’t believe my eyes. And the dresses! (5) , I don’t know

how much they would have cost - a fortune, I imagine! All designer labels, (6)

. The photographers were (7) having a field day, and (8)

there were reporters everywhere, falling over each other (9)

, to interview the biggest names. (10) we didn’t have the

best seats, (11) we were in the back row. (12) , we could

still see everything. (13) I was so busy star-spotting that 1 didn’t

take in the plot. (14) you’d have been the same.

(15) , I’m not too keen on thrillers but it must have been good

because at the end the whole audience rose to its feet and clapped. (16) ,

I’m not terribly sure what the story was about, but you really must go and see it when it's on general release.

(17) , it was an amazing evening and to top it off we went to

Quaglino’s for supper afterwards, and (18) Sarah Jane Fox and Brad

Brat were at the next table! How cool is that? (19) , Sarah Jane Fox

has awful skin problems. (20) , who cares about that when you’ve

got that much money!

2. COMBINING MESSAGES: COHERENCE 2. 1. REFERENCE

Excercise I. Fill in the gaps with PERSONAL PRONOUNS, ‘ONE'- PRONOUN or POSSESSIVE FORMS to refer back to something that has already been mentioned.

1. In fright Rosetta seized Gabriel's hand, he felt her plump, soft palm,

and entwined Fingers with . Gabriel's hand was cold and rough

and pressed hard, harder all the time.

2. The cat joined the Re-education Committee and was very active

for some days. was seen one day sitting on a roof and talking to

some sparrows who were just out of reach. was telling that

all animals were now comrades and that any sparrow who chose could

come and perch on paw; but kept distance.

1. I have an aspirin, if you want .

4. The green light went out, the red came on.

5. The top front teeth are which are most at risk from tooth decay.

6. Merely having enough houses for the number of families that claim to want one, would not remove the housing problem

Exercise 2. Fill in the gaps with QUANTITY PRONOUNS AND DETERMINERS to refer back.

1. She began to consult doctors, and had a different diagnosis.

2. Thousands of new diets are dreamed up yearly; are soon forgotten,

are sufficiently effective to become popular.

3. The most startling thing about Goa are the four great Catholic churches built

in old Goa and now surrounded by jungle; had been abandoned to nature

but were still in use.

4. Small meteorites hit the Earth all the time. Most of them incinerate in

the atmosphere. The cores of the larger survived to pulverise craters on

the earth; many of them have been eroded or obliterated by glaciation,

but have survived. have landed in the deep Antarctic

ice: are regularly retrieved and studied because are less

likely to be contaminated with earth material. come from outside

the solar system, are believed to have come from Mars.

(All the pronouns refer to the meteorites in the text).

5. The old greed for power? It is one, if not the most important source of wars, conflicts, and family quarrels, more than , come to think of it.

Exercise 3. Fill in the gaps with DEMONSTRATIVES to refer back.

1. She told me she loved me more than ail my brothers and sisters combined.

She was afraid to show it because they would be jealous. were her

exact words.

2. “The hotel's bad - the weather's awful! What a holiday! is the end!”

“Well - I told you the weather was unpredictable here. The only person you have to blame for is yourself!” “ 's what you always say!”

3. The cost of the operation in 1990 and 1991 will be nearly 10 million dollars.

Over half of relates to personnel costs such as salaries, fees and travel

expenses.

4. A century earlier, Messina had had a famous architectural seafront, lined with elegant palaces. Only remnants of remained now.

5. I'm quite happy if you ignore the format of the essay and just produce a sheet in which you say " are my thoughts".

6. Rights? You ceased to have from the moment you were brought here.

7. Yes, you can trust a botanist; at least, from the Royal Botanic Gardens.

8. The public is only interested in generals who win battles, not in who

lose them.

9. He employed a housekeeper about whom he would sometimes remark, rather unkindly, that not only was she of indeterminate age, but also of

indeterminate sex, unaware that was exactly what others frequently

said about him.

10. "I wonder if the police have managed to get hold of Matt. I'll try and find out." Brand assured her." would be a relief," she said gratefully.

I 1. At first I thought that this reorganization was simply an attempt on his part to gain more power. But is not the explanation.

12. Few drivers left the highway here, although there was a grassy area which made possible.

Exercise 4. Fill in the gaps with DO/SO/NOT to refer back.

1. They hated children. 1 heard them say .

2. "But you '11 be taken prisoner, won't you ?" — "I hope "

3. How do you know no one else saw her?"— "Someone might have, sir, but if , they haven't come forward yet."

4. "Were there any survivors?"— "No, sir. I'm afraid "

5. Ask her if it is a convenient time. If , can she suggest another

possible time?

6. Iris avoided wine with her meal but even she felt unutterably drowsy

afterwards.

7. "You're probably better equipped to do it than he would be even if he were here."— "Maybe . But it’s hard all the same.

8. Nothing changes, or it seems.

9. I always read a lot and I more than ever while preparing a new

TV programme.

10. People who talk soppy to their dogs almost always in public as

well as in private. As a vet's wife I'd noticed that. But Martin in

private, and adopted a brisk, no-nonsense approach in public. It just didn't make sense.

Kxercise 5. Find a relevant reference NOUN or SUCH+NOUN to substitute

for the underlined part of She text. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. Why is it that feminists always say "women feel" when what they mean is “feminists feer? It is not at all the same .

2. Some visitors may come by road from Zaire; in that , they will

probably enter Zambia through Kaumbalesa or Mokambo.

3. If an unemployed worker refuses training or a job his benefits are stopped. In this Sweden has virtually abolished long-term unemployment.

4. We have decided to use the jam you sent us only with our evening cup of tea, and in that it will last us a long time.

5. There have long been rumours that they have been trying to acquire anti­aircraft missiles, but this is the first time they have claimed the use of .

6. He had never seen a woman in his close family openly lose her temper with a male relative, and believed that only bad women did .

7. My friends would take the children out and keep them for a night to give me a break. And my doctor continued to listen, to believe, teaching me how to cope. I was very lucky to be surrounded by .

8. "1 just want justice."— "There's any more and you're not being

honest. You want revenge."

9. He personally hoped that the Nature Conservancy or would buy

up the island.

10. She was struck by a picture of a woman with a long dress and a plunging neckline and a tall hair-do. were the fashions in those days.

Kxercise 6. Find a relevant reference DETERMINERS NOUN or

DEMONSTRATIVE+NOUN to substitute for the underlined part of the

text. Translate the sentences into Russian.

1. The government says environmental taxation will be introduced only when competitor countries take .

2. If you're a bricklayer or an athlete you will need more food to "fuel"

than if you are a secretary or a student.

3. Almost all state enterprises should be sold off or closed over the next few

months. As with the constitution and decentralization, create

both promise and risk.

3. These huge trees, in fact, are feeding on themselves, for the moment their leaves fall they decay and become the food on which the trees feed. So rapid is that only a thin topsoil is able to form.

4. This extra production, combined with a seasonal slump in demand, has caused sharp falls in the prices of some crude oils in recent weeks. Under

, present market weakness is hardly surprising.

3. Not only did stress literally save our lives, but we almost became addicted to the stress reaction. liking to fight even when not necessary. In

, modern man's behaviour begins to make sense.

3. -"I'm living on massive bank overdrafts." —- "I understand," Jefferson murmured, "I'll help you." — 'No, no," Mahoney said. "I'm just explaining

8- He'd obviously been drinking and he looked flushed and angry. I've never seen him in before or since.

9. During another experiment, though, she saw two images. was

unexpected but turned out to be extremely important.

9. Vegetarians have significantly thinner blood and lower blood pressure than

meat eaters. is caused partly by a reduction in the number of red

blood cells.

I 1. The court decided that the time she had already served in prison was

sufficient punishment for the manslaughter charge. could just

as easily have occurred with a male defendant.

12. The husband subsequently pleaded guilty to the assault and was convicted. At the time of the victim was 38 and had four children.

13. Ghosts and demons? Don't tell me you still believe in !

14. Of course if you are going to a party, or performing an important public role, that's different. Just make sure your make-up all comes off after _________.

15. Leave the beans to stand for 6-8 hours in a cool place, then drain. The harder the bean, the more it will benefit from longer soaking, so

is advisable for soya beans, chick peas and butter beans

especially.

12. A further act of Parliament took the regulation of admissions and detention of mental patients out of legal hands and gave it over to doctors. Most psychiatrists fell that worked well.

13. Finishing his drink, he went to bed. easily accomplished by him

these days as he simply took off some clothes and crawled under the sheets.

18. Nearly all the factories in the nation have closed, and food and money are scarce. News of is only beginning to spread beyond its borders.

1. I used to wonder what responsible choice we could make: using paper destroys trees while plastic pollutes the planet. Lately I've been avoiding by bringing my own canvas bags when I go to the store.

20. "Rehabilitation is often thought of as restoring an area of land to its original

conditions." says the bank's report. "However, is rarely feasible.

Often", it says, "rehabilitation will mean simply restoring a cover of vegetation to eroding soils."

20. If you have been the subject of a crime, try to find witnesses, and report

to the police.

20. Leo's view is that if a thing is worth doing, it's worth doing as well as it can possibly be done, so he will work just as hard at his hobby as at his career.

One of the advantages of is that at any time a hobby can be

turned into a career.

20. I kept hoping that if I didn't look at them they would quietly go away.

When I had finished, I opened my eyes and discovered that had

been granted. There was only one person left in the audience.

Exercisc 7. Rewrite using NON-F1N1TE or VERBLESS clauses.

Example: When he looked at his watch, he saw lhal it was half past five.

Looking at his watch, he saw that it was half past five.

1. After he left the hotel early in the morning, he headed for the public library, and took up his usual position on the steps.

2. He grew impatient if he was told lhal something could not be done, because it had not been done before.

3. He stared vacantly at the people who were milling around as if they were unaware of the commotion.

4. They said they were so busy they would need a week before they took action.

5. Even when she was asked a direct question she scarcely bothered to answer.

6. These schemes should be fairer to taxpayers, but they would still be expensive, especialiv if they were available to all.

7. He poured himself another drink; he was unwilling to lose the moment and the memory.

8. I've heard that Joe Wilson, though he is unwilling to part with any money during his life, will leave everything to her after his death.

9. Do you think that while he was still in motion his cycle was kicked from behind?

10. How do we choose? When we have chosen, how do we know that this is the best choice?

11. She didn't realize it. but she was moving along the road, and was unaware of its crystal-hard covering of ice.

Without

12. Because she realized that she was blocking his path, she stepped cautiously to one side.

13. Although they were unhappy with the opinion polls. Republicans argued yesterday that they would receive a boost from their convention in August.

14. He finished the tea and laid the cup aside, because he wasn't expecting her to answer.

15. Mother had had a fainting fit when she heard the news. on

16. The doctors have been marvellous in the wav they have explained everything.

17. Joanna startled Enid: she gave her an utterly inappropriate hug. by

18. His eves were fixed on the lake: he made the sort of meaningless remarks that the occasion required.

Exercise 8. Join the sentences using NON-FINITE or VERBLESS clauses.

1. I read a book. A friend of yours wrote it.

2. A man got on the bus. He was carrying a monkey in a box.

3. In the street there were several people. They were waiting for the shop to open.

4. Britain imports many cars. They are made in Japan.

5. T here are a lot of people in your office. They wish to talk to you.

6. The cowboy fell off his horse. He had been wounded by an arrow.

7. Most of the people recovered quickly. They were injured in the crash.

8. John looked anxiously at his watch. He wished he hadn't come to the party.

9. There was a crowd of people outside the football stadium. They all were trying to get in.

10. John gave us the documents. They neatly folded and filed.

11. I was absolutely baffled. I reread the extract.

12. The children sat down obediently. Their eyes were on the food.

13. She was looking unkempt. Her skirt was crumpled and creased.

1. I felt shocked by the news. I tried to work out what needed to be done.

10. The prisoner twisted a coat-hanger into the keyhole. He managed to open the door.

11. She was surrounded by the police. She hid the drug.

12. She was robbed several times. She always avoided walking home alone at night.

13. More than 20 inmates escaped from Leyton top security jail last night. T hey have now been caught.

14. There were explosives hidden in the luggage. The sniffer dogs could smell them.

Exercise 9. Make one sentence, incorporating the extra information into

the base sentence.

1. A lady was sitting in her garden. Grey-haired/ shawl around her shoulders/ she watched the sun/ the sun was setting.

2. Peter has a house. He works in London/ he works for a company/ the company sells computers/ three-bedrooms/ the house overlooks the river Thames.

3. A man walked along the road. Elderly/ a wrinkled face/ an old raincoat/ slowly/ dusty/ tree-lined.

4. Ann Cross was seen in a restaurant. The actress/ she won an Oscar for a film/ the film was made last year/ she was having dinner with a man/ his company recently went bankrupt.

5. A boy was sitting at the table in the corner. Thin/ dark-haired/ gray flannel jacket/ the sleeves were too short/ a glass of coffee in front of him.

Exercise 10. Proofread the following sentences.

6. A man to whom I was talking to recently told me a joke, which was very funny, but that I have unfortunately forgotten.

7. Our director for who’s job I applied when the previous director left, has announced that the pay rise, which we asked for, has had to be postponed, that really upset us.

8. The actress Joan Kelly whose most famous film was ‘One for the Road’ for that she won an Oscar award, has died at the age of 77 at her home in California, in which she had lived for the last 25 years.

9. This morning, I got a cheque in the post that I wasn’t expecting, for some work, which I did a long time ago, translating business texts.

10. Lord Brown on whom many people look as the best prime minister of the century and who’s memoirs that were published last year caused a scandal, got married to a woman, who he first met 55 years ago, when they were at school together.

1.2. COMPRESSING IDEAS: ELLIPSES

Exercise1. Rewrite Che following sentences omitting whatever can be

ellipted without change of meaning.

A:

1. When you are in Rome, do as Rome does.

2. When he was pressed to take part in politics, he firmly declined.

3. There were no stores of boots that were readily available.

4. He threw himself from the horse and lay still as if he had been shot.

5. Any foreigner, however innocent he might be, was attacked.

6. If you were left alone on a desert island, what would you do first?

7. If other people are willing to make and use machines for my benefit, I am not less willing to let them make and use machines for my benefit.

8. I do not wish to take part in this protest, and I do not intend to take part in it.

9. Unless you are travelling by the couch, please let the Secretary know when you expect to arrive.

10. The castle, which was built in the 12 century, has dominated the valley ever since.

11. Much of the earth's surface is formed by sedimentary rocks - that is to say, rocks which were formed by the deposition of sand, silt and clay.

B:

1. Ellipsis is possible in noun phrases and prepositional phrases.

2. Ellipsis can be used to shorten long sentences and cumbersome sentences.

3. Sentences in legal documents and sentences in students’ essays are often too long.

4. For these reasons and other reasons it’s worth considering how to make sentences shorter.

5. Your experience and my experience are equally useful.

6. Your experience and your common sense are a great asset to us.

7. He has worked to the full extent of his obligations and beyond his obligations.

8. I do not write to a pre-arranged plot, and have never written to a pre­arranged plot.

Chapter 3

MAKING A TEXT