Inversion,

distant position of the syntactically connected units of the sentence,

detachment

ellipsis,

aposiopesis,

nominative sentences,

asyndeton

ordinary repetition,

extended repetition,

framing,

chain repetition,

catch repetition,

enumeration,

syntactic tautology,

emphatic constructions,

parenthetical sentences

2. Em based on the deliberate reduction of some elements of the sentence structure (ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton).

Ellipsis is an expressive means consisting in deliberate omission of at least one member of the sentence.

e.g. Andrew spoke out what we all knew, "Matty'll never touch cutter-handles again. Too much to expect. A pity. They knew a good set of lads. Took a pride in their work, and that's rare now. Broken up now. Finished". (S. Chaplin)

The term elliptical sentence implies absence of one or both principal parts. The missing parts are either present in the syntactic environment of the sentence (context), or they are implied by the situation. Ellipsis is typical of colloquial speech. In works of fiction, elliptical sentences are made use of either to reproduce the direct speech of characters, or to impart brevity, a quick tempo and (sometimes) emotional tension to the author's narrative. For the sake of business-like brevity, elliptical sentences are very frequent in papers or handbooks on technology or natural sciences [16:78,79].

As for their structure, elliptical sentences are variegated. Very often the subject is omitted, mostly when it is the pronoun of the first person (I).

e.g. "Were they interesting books?"

"Don't know. Haven't read them. Looked pretty hopeless." (A. Christie)

Sometimes the predicate is missing.

e.g. "You Chester Scott?"

"That's right."

"Glad to know you." (Сh. Chase)

An extreme case of ellipsis can be observed in the sentence consisting of only three words, which sentence, however, is compound expressing alternative:

e.g. "Perhaps, perhaps not." (M. Clifford)

Aposiopesis (break, stop-short, pull-up) is an expressive means which consists in "breaking" the narrative for rhetorical effect.

e.g. "I do apologise, Madam, I feel so…I would not have troubled…" (S. Hill)

Aposiopesis conveys to the reader a very strong upsurge of emotions. The idea of this expressive means is that the speaker cannot proceed, his feelings depriving him of the ability to express himself in terms of language [10:234]. Break is also used in the dialogue imitating spontaneous oral speech. Another cause of aposiopesis is the desire to cut short the information with which the sentence began [20:86].

This term in Greek means silence and it denotes intentional abstention from continuing the utterance to the end. The information implied by aposiopesis is usually clear in communicative situation. Break-in-the-narrative expresses such modal meanings as threat, warning, doubt, indecision, excitement, and promise.

Aposiopesis is such an expressive means in which the role of the intonation implied cannot be overestimated. The pause after the break is generally charged with meaning and it is the intonation only that will decode the communicative significance of the utterance [10:235].

Nominative (nominal) sentence is an expressive means which is expressed by a sentence consisting only of a nominal group, which is semantically and communicatively self-sufficient.

e.g. Early evening. April. (J. Osborne)

The communicative function of a nominative sentence is a mere statement of the existence of an object, a phenomenon. Nominative sentences are especially suitable for preliminary descriptions introducing the reader to the situation which the narrative is to treat. The stylistic effect produced by a nominative sentence or by succession of nominative sentences is predetermined by the sentence of the words of which they consist. Nominative sentences are widely used in stage directions (especially in initial, opening remarks, serving the same purpose as expositions in novels and stories [16:81-82].

Asyndeton is an expressive means which consists in the connection between parts of a sentence or between sentences without any formal sign. It becomes expressive if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.

e.g. "Who makes fame? Critics, writers, stockbrokers, women"

(S. Maugham).

Asyndeton has a strong rhythmic arrangement [10: 226]. As for its communicative function, it makes speech dynamic and expressive. It can sometimes render the speaker's haste, nervousness and impatience.

3. EM based on the redundancy (expansion) of some elements of the sentence structure (ordinary repetition, extended repetition, framing, anadiplosis, chain repetition, catch repetition, enumeration, syntactic tautology, emphatic construction, parenthetical sentences).

The linguist O. Morokhovsky distinguishes such types of repetition: ordinary repetition, framing, catch repetition, chain repetition [13:143-144].

Ordinary repetition is an expressive means which has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various positions.

e.g. The city had laid miles and miles of streets and sewers through the region (R. Aldington).

Extended repetition is an expressive means which consists in the repetition of the speech unit with additional components that define or extend its meaning.

e.g. I don't think Art heard. Pain, even slight pain, tends to isolate. Pain, such as he had to suffer, cuts the last links with society (S. Chaplin).

Framing is such type of repetition when the beginning of the sentence is repeated in the end, thus forming the "frame" for the non-repeated part of the sentence (utterance).

e.g. Nothing ever happened in that little town, left behind by the advance of civilization, nothing (S. Maugham).

Catch repetition (anadiplosis) is such type of repetition when the end of one clause (sentence) is repeated in the beginning of the following one.

e.g. Poirot was shaken; shaken and embittered (A. Christie).

Chain repetition - is the combination of several catch repetitions.

e.g. A smile would come into Mr. Pickwick face. Smile extended into laugh, the laugh into roar, and the roar became general (Ch. Dickens).

Table 24