LECTURE 11

MODULE 2

Lesson 3

Low and High Context: How much information is enough?

Context is the information that surrounds an event; it is inextricably bound up with the meaning of that event. The elements that combine to produce a given meaning - events and context - are in different proportions depending on the culture. The cultures of the world can be compared on a scale from high to low context.

A high context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message. A low context (LC) communication is just the opposite; i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code.

Japanese, Arabs, and Mediterranean peoples, who have extensive information networks among family, friends, colleagues, and clients and who are involved in close personal relationships, are high context. As a result, for most normal transactions in daily life they do not require, nor do they expect, much in-depth, background information. This is because they keep themselves informed about everything having to do with the people who are important in their lives. Low-context people include Americans, Germans, Swiss, Scandinavians, and other northern Europeans; they compartmentalize their personal relationships, their work, and many aspects of day-to-day life. Consequently, each time they interact with others they need detailed background information. The French are much higher on the context scale than either the Germans or the Americans. This difference can affect virtually every situation and every relationship in which the members of these two opposite traditions find themselves.

Within each culture, of course, there are specific individual differences in the need for contexting - the process of filling in background data. But it is helpful to know whether the culture of a particular country falls on the high or low side of the scale since every person is influenced by the level of context.

Contexting performs multiple functions. For example, any shift in the level of context is a communication. The shift can be up the scale, indicating a warming of the relationship, or down the scale (lowering the context), communicating coolness or displeasure-signaling something has gone wrong with a relationship. First-naming in the United States is an artificial attempt at high-contexting; it tends to offend Europeans, who view the use of first names as acceptable only between close friends and family. With Europeans, one is always safe using a formal form of address, waiting for the other person to indicate when familiarity is acceptable.

Like their near relations, the Germans, many Anglo-Americans (mostly those of northern European heritage) are not only low-context but they also lack extensive, well-developed information networks. American networks are limited in scope and development compared to those of the French, the Spanish, the Italians, and the Japanese.

What follows from this is that Americans, unless they are very unsophisticated, will feel the need for contexting, for detailed background information, any time they "are asked to make a decision or to do something. The American approach to life is quite segmented and focused on discrete, compartmentalized information. It is characteristic of high-context, high-information societies that attendance at functions is as much a matter of the prestige associated with the function as anything else. This in turn means that, quite frequently, invitations to high-level meetings and conferences will be issued on short notice. It is taken for granted that those invited will eschew all previous commitments if the meeting is important enough. As a general rule Americans place greater importance on how long ago a commitment was made, on the agenda, and on the relevance of the expertise of different individuals to the agenda.

Another example of the contrast between how high- and low-context systems work is this: consider a top American executive working in an office and receiving a normal quota of visitors, usually one at a time. Most of the information that is relevant to the job originates from the few people the executive sees in the course of the day, as well as from what she or he reads. This is why the advisors and support personnel who surround the presidents of American enterprises (as well as the president of the United States) are so important. They and they alone control the content and the flow of organizational information to the chief executive.

Contrast this with the office of virtually any business executive in a high-context country such as France or Japan, where information flows freely and from all sides. Not only are people constantly coming and going, both seeking and giving information, but the entire form and function of the organization is centered on gathering, processing, and disseminating information. Everyone stays informed about every aspect of the business and knows who is best informed on what subjects.

In Germany almost everything is low-context and compartmentalized. The executive office is both a refuge and a screen - a refuge for the boss from the distractions of day-to-day office interactions and a screen for the employees from continual supervision. Information communicated in the office is not shared except with a select few - the exact antithesis of the high-information cultures.

High-context people are apt to become impatient and irritated when low-context people insist on giving them information they don't need. Conversely, low-context people are at a loss when high-context people do not provide enough information. One of the great communications challenges in life is to find the appropriate level of contexting needed in each situation.

Space

Every living thing has a visible physical boundary - its skin - separating it from its external environment. This visible boundary is surrounded by a series of invisible boundaries that are more difficult to define but are just as real. These other boundaries begin with the individual's personal space and terminate with her or his "territory." Spatial changes give tone to communication, accent it, and at times even override the spoken word. As people interact, the flow and shift of distance between them is integral to the communication process. For example, if a stranger does not maintain "normal" conversational distance and gets too close, our reaction is automatic-we feel uncomfortable, sometimes even offended or threatened and we back up.

Since most people don't think about personal distance as something that is culturally patterned, foreign spatial cues are almost inevitably misinterpreted. This can lead to bad feelings, which are then projected onto the people from the other culture in a most personal way. When a foreigner appears aggressive and pushy, or remote and cold, it may mean only that her or his personal distance is different from yours.

Territoriality

In humans territoriality is highly developed and strongly influenced by culture. It is particularly well developed in the Germans and the Americans. Americans tend to establish places that they label "mine". In Germany this same feeling of territoriality is commonly extended to all possessions, including the automobile.

Space also communicates power. A corner office suite in the United States is conventionally occupied by "the brass," and a private office in any location has more status than a desk in the open without walls. In both German and American business, the top floors are reserved for high-ranking officials and executives. In contrast, important French officials occupy a position in the middle; the emphasis there is on occupying the central position in an information network, where one can stay informed and can control what is happening.

Personal Space

Personal space is another form of territory. Each person has around him an invisible bubble of space which expands and contracts depending on a number of things: the relationship to the people nearby, the person's emotional state, cultural background, and the activity being performed. Few people are allowed to penetrate this bit of mobile territory and then only for short periods of time. Changes in the bubble, brought about by cramped quarters or crowding, cause people to feel uncomfortable or aggressive. In northern Europe, the bubbles are quite large and people keep their distance. In southern France, Italy, Greece, and Spain, the bubbles get smaller and smaller so that the distance that is perceived as intimate in the north overlaps normal conversational distance in the south, all of which means that Mediterranean Europeans "get too close" to the Germans, the Scandinavians, the English, and those Americans of northern European ancestry. In northern Europe one does not touch others. Even the brushing of the overcoat sleeve used to elicit an apology.

Many messages are implied or have a cultural meaning, and there is a tacit agreement as to the nature of that meaning which is deeply rooted in the context of the communication. There is much that is taken for granted in culture that few people can explain but which every member of the culture accepts as given. Remember that messages come in many forms (most of them not in words) which are imbedded in the context and in the choice of channels.

LECTURE 12

MODULE 2

Lesson 3

Appearance

The way how a person 'appears' has been shown to be highly correlated with the evaluation of that person. Appearance can of course be broadly classified in to different ways: biological appearance and acquired appearance.

Biological appearance includes skin color, color and the shape of eyes, texture and color of hair, stature and body structure. Stereotyping is, in that area, a very vital fact, that leads to differentiated behavior based on biological, physical appearance. Equally the mode of dressing affects evaluation of a person. While in most Western societies suits, and formal attire reflect professionalism, this is not necessarily the case in all societies, in Arabian societies, a ghutra and thobe might be preferred. It is however a widespread assumption, for example, that a suit is required for business purposes, and represents civilized behavior. The perception of dress however is again different regarding the various styles: for example the Italian, more flamboyant, style of dressing might be judged by a UK person as simply 'nouveaux riche', and ridiculously fancy.

Business Dress

China

- Business attire is conservative and unpretentious. - Men should wear dark coloured, conservative business suits. - Women should wear conservative business suits or dresses with a high neckline.  - Women should wear flat shoes or shoes with very low heels. - Bright colours should be avoided.

Iran

When doing business in Iran you will notice that most Iranian officials and business people wear clothing comprising of trousers, shirt and jacket. Many officials will be seen with collarless shirts. Ties are very uncommon.

As a male you would be expected to be smart and conservative. A suit is standard although wearing a tie is not necessary.

Whether doing business in Iran or visiting, women should wear very conservative clothing that covers arms, legs and hair. When in public women must cover their hair with a scarf. However, the last decade has seen incredible changes in what the authorities are willing to tolerate. Women can now be seen wearing make-up, jeans and scarves that barely cover the hair. However, as a foreigner it is best to err on the side of caution.

• Business attire is formal and conservative.

• Men should wear dark coloured conservative business suits.

• Ties are not worn by Iranians but it would not be seen as negative if you did so.

• Dress well to make a good impression.

• Women should always dress modestly and cover their hair.

Russia

- Business dress is formal and conservative. - Men should wear business suits. - Women should wear subdued coloured business suits with skirts that cover the knees. - Shoes should be highly polished. 

Turkey

- Business dress is conservative. You will be expected to wear a suit and tie. Similarly women should wear smart professional outfits. - In the summer, and especially in the cities of Istanbul, Izmir and Anakara the weather is very hot and humid. It is acceptable to just wear a shirt with trousers and in most cases to not wear a tie. - Outside the big cities and especially in the East of Turkey both women and men should wear more conservative clothing. Women are advised to refrain from exposing their legs and arms and to ensure clothes are not tight-fitting. Men should not wear shorts.

United Arab Emirates

Unlike elsewhere in Arabia, it is inappropriate [in some places even illegal] for foreigners to wear local garb. The reason is that the preponderance of foreign residents can lead to them impersonating nationals merely by dress. Appropriate business dress for men is shirt and trousers during the day with collar and tie in the evening. Bush suits are also popular and suitable for the climate. Ladies need not dress quite so modestly as elsewhere in Arabia but should still be careful not to offend by wearing anything too revealing.

Egypt

- Business attire is formal and conservative. Dress well if you want to make a good impression.

- Men should wear dark coloured, lightweight, conservative business suits, at least to the first meeting.

- Men should avoid wearing visible jewellery, especially around the face and neck.

- Women must be careful to cover themselves appropriately. Skirts and dresses should cover the knee and sleeves should cover most of the arm.

Italy

- Dressing well is a priority in Italy.

- Men should wear dark coloured, conservative business suits.

- Women should wear either business suits or conservative dresses.

- Elegant accessories are equally important for men and women.

Spain

Spaniards are extremely dress-conscious and will perceive your appearance as an indication of your professional achievement and relative social standing.

It is important to dress con elegancia, which means top-quality, conservative clothing in relatively subdued colours. Men should wear dark woollen or linen suits and silk ties with white cotton shirts and women should wear well-cut suits (including trouser suits) or business dresses made of high-quality fabrics. Designer clothes and brand names will be noted with approval.

The female business traveller should strive to dress with the utmost modesty, as Spanish women are expected to avoid drawing attention to their physical sexuality and tend to emphasise their femininity through their immaculate clothes and hair.

Obviously the weather can be an important factor in determining what to wear. As the temperature approaches 40ºC in the shade at the height of summer, it becomes increasingly acceptable to wear lightweight suits and, outside an air-conditioned office, to loosen one's tie and throw one's jacket over one's shoulder.

As always, it is best to follow the example of your Spanish counterpart and to remember that it is 'cool' to look smart but also that it is smart to look literally cool.

On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that it can be very cold in January and February in the central meseta and surrounding mountain ranges and that, even in high summer, there can be an uncomfortably marked difference in temperature between, say, the heat of Madrid and the cool air of El Escorial in the adjacent foothills of the Sierra de Guadarrama to the northwest of the capital.

When off-duty, you should bear in mind that shorts are not really acceptable in public, that the dress code for entering a church is both strict and strictly enforced [i.e. neither sex should display a disrespectfully excessive amount of bare flesh], and that top restaurants will expect at least 'smart casual' dress even in July-August.

'Smart casual' does not include un-ironed T-shirts, cheap jeans and trainers/sneakers

Sweden

When doing business in Sweden, think conservative. For business purposes, men should wear good quality suits with silk ties and shirts. Women should wear suits or business dresses that are stylish yet understated. Trousers are acceptable for business women in Sweden. The egalitarian values of Sweden mean you should remember to keep a low profile. Avoid wearing anything flashy. Even senior executives do not dress any more elaborately than average employees.

Brazil

- Brazilians pride themselves on dressing well. - Men should wear conservative, dark coloured business suits. Three-piece suits typically indicate that someone is an executive. - Women should wear suits or dresses that are elegant and feminine with good quality accessories. Manicures are expected.

Mexico

- Dress as you would in Europe. - Men should wear conservative, dark coloured suits. - Women should wear business suits or conservative dresses.

Japan

In Japanese business culture, men traditionally wore conservative suits, typically in blue or gray, with a white shirt and dark tie. Suits are still conservative in medium-sized and larger Japanese companies and government offices, but pastel shirts are now common.

Pastel shirts, and some even more colorful versions, are rapidly becoming common in Japan's business world. The foreign businessman in Japan can wear whatever shirt he usually wears...without any negative impact.

You may be expected to take your shoes off in temples and homes, as well as in some ryokan (inn) style restaurants. Consequently, it’s a good idea to wear slip-on shoes, since they can be taken off easily. Since your socks will be seen more than usual, ensure that you pack a supply of clean, conservative socks.

Business women should dress conservatively and use jewellery, perfume, and makeup only sparingly.

It is now common for many Japanese women to wear slacks, pant suits and high heels at work, depending on the kind of work they do. In factories, they generally wear uniforms. Office workers in many companies dress very much like female employees in Western countries. Some old-line companies continue to dictate conservative style.

Summers in low lying areas of Japan are hot and humid. It's a good idea to pack several changes of clothes, as this culture places an emphasis on maintaining a clean, neat appearance.

Business meetings are sometimes held in inns (“ryokans”), where you may be expected to wear a yukata robe to dinner. The inn provides the yukata.

Wrap a yukta (or kimono) left over right. Only corpses wear a kimono wrapped right over left.

Working Across Cultures

By: Kate Berardo

Working across cultures requires a diverse skill set and a different approach from business in general. Regardless of which cultures are being bridged, certain strategies are crucial to international business success. Here are our top ten strategies for interacting with people from different cultures.

1. Learn about the business beforehand

This general business strategy becomes increasingly important when dealing with businesses across cultures. Get on their website, check out their promotional material. Get a feel for the atmosphere, attitude, and angle that the business has. Many cultural factors are passed down from the societal level to businesses. However, each organization will have its own culture, personality, and way of doing things.

2. Observe

Because your mind is processing a lot of information in new environments, your observation skills when working across cultures may be flooded or unfocused. Keep your observation skills engaged and alert to elements that will help you do business. Notice how people act, dress, and treat each other. Especially if you come from a culture that emphasizes verbal communication, make a point of looking for messages that are conveyed without being said. Being able to read a situation will greatly improve your ability to have a successful meeting.

3. Ask questions

Many people don't want to reveal how little they know about other cultures, so they don't ask questions. Ultimately, they limit their ability to work in other cultures. Questions show you are interested in your colleague's culture. This interest and consideration helps build your relationship, which is especially important if your culture has a reputation for trying to culturally dominate others (e.g. the U.S.). Demonstrate that you are working to create synergy between your cultures with questions. In doing so, you create room for the mistakes you may make; people are more willing to look past cultural blunders if they know you are trying to learn.

4. Stay aware of yourself

Some people feel like they have somewhat of an out-of-body experience when in cross-cultural situations because they are focused on everything new outside of themselves. There can be so much going on around you that you forget to focus on yourself as well. Take advantage of down time (and make time for it) so you can get in touch with your body and feelings. What's your gut feeling? Where is it coming from? This process can help you feel more grounded and secure in your experience abroad.

5. Allow for more time

Working across cultures takes more time. Communication may be slowed and logistics may be different. You may be working with a culture with a different concept of time altogether. Expect most things to take longer than they would when dealing with a business from your same culture or country. Also give yourself more time to process all the information before making decisions. 6. Look for individual differences

Overviews of cultures are meant to be guidelines only. Individuals may have values and behaviors that vary greatly from those of their native culture. Many people make the mistake of trying to fit people they are working with into cultural molds, when often they don't fit. People's values and behaviors are influenced in part by their culture, but also by their background, experiences, and personality. Be careful not to attribute too much of what you observe to a cultural difference.