Рецензия на статью «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия»

В статье «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» Н. рассматривает содержание понятия «самоконтроль в учебной деятельности младших школьников» в условиях перехода на новые образовательные стандарты, в которых целью и основным результатом образования признается развитие личности ребенка за счет усвоения универсальных учебных действий, обеспечивающих его способность к самообразованию.

Актуальность темы, рассматриваемой автором статьи, не вызывает сомнения, так как изменение целей начального общего образования предполагает умение младших школьников осуществлять самоконтроль за процессом усвоения и применения универсальных учебных действий, что расширяет рамки области применения самоконтроля в учебной деятельности на начальном этапе обучения. Более того, включение самоконтроля в состав универсальных учебных действий дает возможность рассмотреть это понятие в рамках теории деятельности.

Н. обосновывает выбор классификации типов самоконтроля на основании наличия или отсутствия эталона для сличения: самоконтроль в форме произвольного внимания, упреждающий самоконтроль и рефлексивный самоконтроль. Далее автор устанавливает соответствие между типами самоконтроля и способами учебной работы (специфическими предметными способами, индивидуальными способами и способами организации учения), а также результатами, достигаемыми в процессе обучения (способом учения, общим способом решения задач данного класса и результатом выполнения конкретного задания на учебном материале). Интерес представляет определение роли и места самоконтроля и процессе освоения нового материала.

Автор предлагает использовать специальные средства для фиксации результатов учебной деятельности, что позволяет младшим школьникам осуществлять мониторинг своей учебной деятельности и развивает у них контрольно-оценочные умения.

Отдельного внимания заслуживает подход автора к понятию самоконтроля с точки зрения теории деятельности и уточненный операционный состав действия самоконтроля.

Статья Н. «Особенности самоконтроля младших школьников как универсального учебного действия» соответствует требованиям, предъявляемым к работам данного типа. Статья рекомендована к публикации.

Часть 2. Практические задания Внимание! Задания к текстам этого раздела:

1. Read the text.

2. Pick up the key words.

3. Divide the text into logical parts.

4. Make up an outline of the text.

5. Find the main idea in each part of the text.

6. Express the main idea of each part in one sentence.

7. Find supporting details in each part of the text.

8. Compress the text excluding the supporting details.

9. Express the main idea of the text in one sentence.

10. Write an annotation/a summary of the text using words and word combinations from your active vocabulary and sample summaries.

Text 1. The Modern Olympic Games

Around 1,500 years after the Ancient Olympics were abolished, a Frenchman named Baron de Coubertin decided to reinstate the Games as a means of providing friendship and understanding between nations. The first Modern Olympics were held in Athens in 1896, but it wasn’t until 1920, in Antwerp, that the Olympic rings made their debut on the flag. The five rings are thought to symbolise the five continents; Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia and America, and it is widely believed that the colours of the rings (blue, black, red, yellow and green) were chosen because at least one of them can be found in the flag of every nation.

At the 1908 London Games, Bishop Ethelbert Talbot impressed Baron de Coubertin with his speech to the Olympic athletes when he declared “The important thing in these Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle.” Baron de Coubertin adopted the first part of this speech as the creed for the Games which now appears on the scoreboard during the opening ceremony.

As well as providing the games with a creed, Baron de Coubertin also adopted the motto “Citius, altius, fortius” from his father’s school motto. It means “Swifter, higher, stronger”, a sentiment that athletes from all over the world aspire to achieve. In some cases athletes are so set on doing the best they can that they take performance-enhancing drugs, which push their bodies to their physical limits. However, officials at the 2004 Athens Games have stated that any evidence of drug-taking will be met with immediate disqualification and, to show they mean what they say, daily tests are being carried out on athletes.

The International Olympic Committee is responsible for the programme, the number of the participants and the city-host for the Games.

Our country first participated in the 1952 Summer and 1956 Winter Olympic Games. The achievements of our athletes in the Olympic Games were a source of great national pride. Although athletes were technically amateurs, they were well supported by the Sports State Committee. In ice hockey, volleyball, basketball, gymnastics, track-and-field athletes, weight lifting, wrestling, and boxing our country was among the best in the world. At the 1992 Barcelona Olympics the team of our country won 45 gold medals.

 Text 2. SPORT AND A HEALTHY MODE OF LIFE

Sport is very important in our life. It is popular among young and old people.

Many people do morning exercises, jog in the morning, train themselves in clubs, in different sections and take part in sport competitions.

Other people like sports too, but they only watch sports games, listen to sports news. They prefer reading interesting stories about sportsmen. But they don't go in for sports.

Physical training is an important subject at school. Pupils have got physical training lessons twice a week. Boys and girls play volley-ball and basket-ball at the lessons. There is a sports ground near our school and school-children go in for sports in the open air.

A lot of different competitions are held at schools, a great number of pupils take part in them. All participants try to get good results and become winners. Sport helps people to keep in good health. If you go in for sports, you have good health and don't catch cold.

Children and grown-ups must take care of their health and do morning exercises regularly.

There are some popular kinds of sports in our country: football, volley-ball, hockey, gymnastics, skiing, skating. Athletics is one of the most popular kinds of sports. It includes such kinds of sports as running, jumping and others. Everybody may choose the sport he (or she) is interested in.

There are summer and winter sports.

My favourite sport is swimming. I go to the swimming-pool twice a week. But I prefer to rest by the lake or the river and swim there.

My friend Kostya goes in for boxing, He is a good boxer and he is a brave and courageous boy. His hobby helps him in his everyday life.

We must speak about the Highland Games in Scotland. All competitors wear Highland dress. There are such competitions as putting the weight, tossing the caber and others. The English are great lovers of sports.

Although I do not go in for sports, I am fond of such activities that allow me to keep fit at home. I start with running then I take exercise programmes.

Some of them go in for sports and sports activities such as swimming, skiing, playing badminton, ice hockey, football or basketball. Unfortunately, public sports facilities are not always available to my friends, and they are engaged into outdoor activities. Most of them prefer running. They put on the white 'trainer' shoes and tracksuits and run through the parks or along the streets for half an hour a day.

Russian schools use sports activities as a way of teaching social values. Among these are teamwork and sportsmanship. The average secondary school offers its pupils such sports as football, basketball, track-and-field. Being intelligent and being good in sports are regarded as an ideal.

I enjoy swimming that is why twice a week I go to the swimming pool in autumn, winter and spring. In summer I swim in the lakes and rivers. But most of all I like to swim in the Black sea.

Healthy life-style popular in Russia. Today everybody wants to be fit, feel good, look slim and stay young. Everyone who wants can participate in sports activities in our country. Many fitness clubs and public leisure centres have been built during the past years. These modern centres with their swimming pools, squash courts, gym and indoor courts for tennis are competing with cinemas and theatres as places for people to go to spend their leisure time. There one can find a leisure pool with a wave machine, water slides and tropical plants Families can spend their holidays at huge indoor water parks. In such pools people in the main splash and not swim.

Nowadays sports and activities are fashionable in Europe and America. For example, popular marathons are now held everywhere. Lots of people want to see if they can run 42 kms and do it faster than everyone else. The big city marathons, in London and New York, are important sporting events. Television cameras and newspapers report them in detail. According to the latest figures the most popular sports in Europe and America are walking, cycling, jogging, playing football and golf. Other popular sports are bowling, badminton, tennis. Experts are asking a very important question: should sports be taken seriously or should it be just for fun? It depends upon the people's choice. Some people want to go in for sports seriously, others consider it to be a way to keep fit.

Sports play an important part in the life of the English people. All sports are very popular among them. The national British sports are: football, golf, cricket, table tennis, lawn tennis, snooker, steeplechase, racing, darts. The British are fond of football which is of two kinds there: association football (soccer) and rugby. Englishmen like all kinds of racing. Horse-racing, motor-car racing, boat-racing, dog-racing, donkey-racing are very popular in England.

Such sports as hockey, soccer, weightlifting, track and field, tennis, rowing, wrestling, golf, basketball, volleyball, boxing, figure-skating, cross-country skiing, swimming, judo and shooting are popular in the USA. The variety and size of the country, its different climates and the people's love of competitions of any type can explain the large choice of sports in America. The most recent unusual sport that first reached popularity in the USA is triathlon. It includes swimming, bicycle racing and long-distance running and is becoming more and more popular in Europe.

TEXT 3.WIGAN’S SPORTING SPECTACLE

Every year, a pub in the town of Wigan in the north-west of England hosts what its owner Tony Callaghan calls an ‘exciting sporting spectacle’. It’s a competition that doesn’t require any athletic ability – indeed, competitors gain more calories than they burn – but the competitors would probably say that technique and training are important.

The event in question is the World Pie-Eating Championship.

Actually, ‘World’ is a bit misleading, as most of the competitors are from near Wigan, and the pies they eat, made of meat (beef) and potato with a pastry crust, are a traditional British food that is particularly popular in the north-west of England. The pies used in the competition are round, with a diameter of 12cm and a depth of 3.5cm.

Although competitive pie eating isn’t the healthiest of sports, in 2006 the championship did respond to anti-obesity guidelines from the British government: it changed the objective from eating as many pies as possible in three minutes (the record was seven, set in 2005 by a local man nicknamed ‘The Anaconda’) to eating just one pie as quickly as possible. The current champion is Barry Rigby, who won the 2009 event by finishing his pie in 45 seconds.

Another concession, also in 2006, was the introduction of a separate competition for vegetarian pie eaters. (There has been a big increase in the number of non-meat eaters in Britain in the last 40 years or so: currently around 10% of the population don’t eat red meat, which includes at least 3% who are strictly vegetarian.)

Unfortunately, just like professional athletics and cycling, the World Pie-Eating Championship has had problems with illegal substances. Some competitors want to eat their pies with gravy – which used to be allowed, but isn’t any more – and there are suspicions that others have unfairly lubricated their throats by taking cough medicine just before the competition.

The worst thing that happened in recent years was in 2007, when all the pies disappeared on the day before the competition. Competition organiser David Williams had just had the pies delivered to his home when unfortunately he took his eye off his pet dog, Charlie, who went into the kitchen and ate every one. Fortunately, however, a local pie-maker was able to make a full set of replacement pies. Seeing the funny side, Williams decided to enter Charlie in the competition, having already found out that he could eat a pie more quickly than any human. When the time came, however, Charlie didn’t even want to finish his pie, probably because he was still full from the previous day.

TEXT 4. DIEGO MARADONA

Maradona was born in 1960 in a poor area of the Argentinian capital, Buenos Aries, and started playing football in the street as a small boy. By the age of twelve he was working as a ball boy at the stadium of Argentinos Juniors, one of the Buenos Aires teams. He played his first game for the Argentinos Juniors first team just before his sixteenth birthday and stayed with the club until 1981, when he joined a more famous Buenos Aires team, Boca Juniors. By this time, though still only twenty-one, he was already the most important player in the Argentina national team. In 1982 he moved to Europe, played in Barcelona for two years and then went to Italy to join Napoli. He soon became a hero with the Napoli fans and was the main reason the team became national champions in 1987 and 1990.

It was as captain of Argentina during the 1986 World Cup finals in Mexico, however, that the most famous moments in Maradona’s career took place. Argentina won the competition and Maradona played brilliantly in most of their games. In the quarter-final against England, which Argentina won 2-1, Maradona scored a goal by punching the ball into the goal. Then, less than five minutes later, he ran with the ball for sixty metres, past five England players, to score what many people think is one of the best goals in the history of football. English fans said the first goal made Maradona a cheat, but most of them agreed the second showed he was also a genius.

After Maradona stopped playing in 1997 he had lots of health problems. There were times when he was very overweight, and in 2004 he had a heart attack and almost died. Since then, however, life for Maradona has improved. In 2005 he became the host of a chat show on Argentinian TV called ‘The Night of 10’, because that was the number of the shirt he always wore as a player, and recently, in October 2008, he became the coach of the Argentina national team.

BECKHAM

David Robert Joseph Beckham was born in Leytonstone, London on May 2nd, 1975. Keen on football from very early on, David won the Bobby Charlton Soccer Skills Award when he was 11. Five years later, at the age of 16, he signed on as a trainee at Manchester United Football Club. The following year, he made his first team debut as a substitute but it was another three years before he started playing full-time in the Premier League. He established himself as a quality player in the 1995/96 season. In 1996 he started playing for the England senior team and the year ended with him being voted Young Player of the Year.

He was left out of the team for the first two matches of the World Cup, but in the match against Colombia he scored a stunning free kick and became the hero of England. However, in the next match, against Argentina, Beckham was sent off for a childish foul on Diego Simeone. England lost the match and went out of the World Cup. Everyone blamed Beckham and the newspapers wouldn’t leave him alone. Many predicted that his career was over – the fans hated him, the newspapers hated him and even people who didn’t know him hated him. Despite all the odds, he answered his critics by playing better football and keeping his temper under control. Gradually, the fans started to appreciate him once more.

TEXT 6. MANCHESTER UNITED

Many English football teams have the word United in their name, but by far the most famous is from the northern city of Manchester and plays in red shirts and white shorts. When football fans refer to Manchester United just as ‘United’, as they often do, other fans always know who they mean.

It’s possible that United have more fans than any other football team in the world. Their stadium, Old Trafford, holds around 75,000 people and is full for almost every match. It’s also true that tens of millions of people around the world watch their matches on TV, and that when they play friendlies thousands of miles away in Asia or Africa (as they have done in recent years in July or August, before the English football season starts) the crowds are always very big.

The club was founded back in 1878 and has had a successful history. It has won the English championship eighteen times (the same number as Liverpool, their biggest rivals) and the European Champions’ League (previously the European Cup) three times.

A well-known tragedy in United’s history was when many of their best players died in a plane crash in Munich, Germany, in 1958. It seemed the club might not recover, but ten years later, in 1968, they became the first English team to win the European Cup.

United’s best players in their great team of the late 1960s included Bobby Charlton (probably the most famous English footballer of the 1960s) and George Best (who some say was the best player who never played in a World Cup – the reason was that he was from Northern Ireland, a country that never qualified for the World Cup during his career).

United were not so good in the 1970s and 80s but have been very successful again since the 1990s under their Scottish manager Alex Ferguson. In the 1990s the best players included Eric Cantona, a Frenchman who was very popular with the fans, and David Beckham, who even people who hate football have heard of.

United’s best player at the moment is perhaps the 24-year-old English forward Wayne Rooney. He is so good that some fans think England have a chance of winning the 2010 World Cup if he plays, but no chance if he gets injured.

RONALDINHO

You’ve probably never heard of Ronaldo de Assis Moreira, even though he is one of the most famous sportsmen in the world. That’s because almost everyone knows him by his nickname, which means ‘little Ronald’ in his native Portuguese.

His face is familiar to billions of people because of his achievements on the pitch, his big front teeth and almost permanent grin, and also the large number of TV adverts he has appeared in. It’s also difficult to find a football-related computer game that doesn’t have his picture somewhere on the packaging. The sportsman we are talking about is, of course, the 26-year-old Brazilian footballer Ronaldinho.

Everyone who enjoys football would agree that he is one of the most entertaining players in the world, often showing skills that even opposition fans applaud. He has been playing for Barcelona since 2003 and for Brazil since 1999, and has scored many memorable and important goals for both teams.

Born in the city of Porto Alegre in the south of Brazil, his football skills were obvious from a young age. When he was eight he started playing at junior level for Gremio, a club in Porto Alegre, and at thirteen he scored 23 goals in one match! The media began to realize how special he was when he reached the Gremio senior team, and by 2001, when he moved to France to play for Paris St Germain, he was already one of the most well-known young footballers in the world. Though he played very well for Brazil in the 2002 World Cup, he was not so successful in Paris – his manager said he was more interested in nightlife than in matches. After he moved to Barcelona, however, his performances were so good that no one worried about his continued enjoyment of nightclubs.

Ronaldinho’s goals were one of the main reasons why Barcelona won the Champions’ League, the most prestigious football competition in the world, in 2006. As he himself says, ‘God gives gifts to everyone ... Some can write, some can dance. He gave me the skill to play football and I am making the most of it.”

Text 7. Golfing Genius

Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born december 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer whose achievements to date rank him among the most successful golfers of all time. Formerly the world no. 1, he is the highest-paid professional athlete in the world, having earned an estimated us$90.5 million from winnings and endorsements in 2010.

Woods turned professional in 1996, and by April 1997 he had already won his first major, the 1997 masters. He first reached the number one position in the world rankings in June 1997. Through the 2000s, Woods was the dominant force in golf, spending 264 weeks from August 1999 to September 2004 and 281 weeks from June 2005 to October 2010 as world number one. From December 2009 to early April 2010, Woods took leave from professional golf to focus on his marriage after he admitted infidelity. His multiple infidelities were revealed by several different women, through many worldwide media sources. This was followed by a loss of form, and his ranking gradually fell to a low of #58 in november 2011. He snapped a career-long winless streak of 107 weeks when he captured the Chevron World Challenge in december 2011.

He has been world number one for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any other golfer. He has been awarded Pga Player Of The Year a record ten times, the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times, and has the record of leading the Money List in nine different seasons. He has won 14 professional Major Golf Championships and 73 Pga Tour events, tied for 2nd all time with Nicklaus behind Sam Snead. He has more Career Major Wins and Career Pga Tour Wins than any other active golfer does. He is the youngest player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest and fastest to win 50 tournaments on tour. Additionally, woods is only the second golfer, after Jack Nicklaus, to have achieved a career grand slam three times. Woods has won 16 World Golf Championships, and won at least one of those events in each of the first 11 years after they began in 1999.

TEXT 8. AGAINST THE CLOCK.

On 6^th May 1954, at an athletics track in Oxford, England, a 25-year-old medical student and amateur athlete called Roger Bannister achieved what many people thought was impossible: he became the first person to run a mile (1.61 kilometres) in less than four minutes. His exact time was 3:59.4, which means three minutes, 59 seconds, and four tenths of a second.

The mile had always been an especially exciting race for many athletics fans, and a large crowd had turned up to see if Bannister could make history. Runners had been getting closer to the four-minute barrier ever since the 1850s, when people first started recording the time they took to complete their races. In the 1850s the world record for the mile was 4:26, but by 1954 it had come down to 4:01.3.

Bannister needed to push his body to the limit in order to run as fast as he did, but said after the race that his achievement was more ‘psychological’ than ‘physical’: the most important thing was to believe he could do it.

It seems this was true, because Bannister certainly inspired many other athletes around the world. Less than six weeks later an Australian athlete, John Landy, set a new record of 3:57.9, one and a half seconds faster than Bannister, and within two years another fifty men had run a mile in less than four minutes.

The number of male professional runners who have broken the four-minute barrier is now in the hundreds, partly because training methods have become more advanced, and the current world record for the mile is the amazing time of 3:43.13 set by the Moroccan Hicham El Guerrouj in 1999.

However, the four-minute mile remains an important target for the best amateur runners, and is still something no woman has managed to achieve – the world record for a female runner in the mile is 4:12.56, set by the Russian Svetlana Masterkova in 1996.

TEXT 9. INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT SKATEBOARDING

Presented here are some amazing facts you didn't know about skateboarding, to enlighten you and give you a wonderful insight into the awesome sport.

The popularity of skateboarding as a sport knows no bounds. With its complex tricks, and ability to improve the hand-eye coordination, along with an increase in the general attention span, this sport has won several fans, a majority of whom belong to the United States of America. Apart from being a fun sport, skateboarding also strengthens the heart and tones the muscles in the body. Whether you indulge in it for its health benefits or just for sheer pleasure of the sport, here are some cool facts for all you skateboarding enthusiasts.

• A fact that has arisen from history of skateboarding is that skateboarding has actually considered to have developed from surfing, and was initially known as sidewalk surfing, with the first skateboard being introduced in the year 1950.

• Skateboarding originated in California, and the first skateboard had handles so that it could be easily maneuvered by its users. The maximum number of skateboarders belong to California.

• Before the ramp for skateboarding was invented, skateboarders used to practice in empty swimming pools and drainage ditches. It was later that they began to build the ramp, which led to the development of the half pipe that forms the core of skateboarding at more advanced levels.

• In the United States, the number of skateboarding parks are less than 500 in number, many of which have just come up in the last 10 years. It is believed that the increase in the number of skateboarding parks is to motivate kids to increase their physical activity by indulging in this sport.

• In order to raise funds for these skateboarding parks, professional skateboarders participated in golf fundraising tournaments.

• Among all the sports in the world, skateboarding has made its mark among the top ten most popular sports.

• For those of you who think skateboarding is a man's sport, here's something for you. Women have been as involved in this sport as men since its inception. The first female professional skateboarder in history was Patti McGee.

• The first modern skateboarding trick was introduced by Alan Ollie Gelfand, and is now popularly known as the Ollie. This is one of the basic tricks that every aspiring skateboarder is expected to learn.

• Though many people fail to notice it, or ignore this body part while skateboarding, the wrists are most prone to injury while performing this activity. It is thus essential that along with all the other protective gear, one should wear wrist guards too.

• As the wrist and other body parts are prone to injury when skateboarding, doctors are visited by more than 80,000 people every year, after hurting themselves while performing this sport.

• Of the people who skateboard, only 40% wear the right protective gear to prevent themselves from injury.

• Kids as young as 2 years of age have dabbled in skateboarding, while the average age of skateboarders is 12 years. The oldest person to learn skateboarding was 67 years old.

• Skateboarding is now a preferred mode of travel for students around their campus. Furthermore, it has emerged as an alternative to and a way of dealing with the continuously increasing cost of gas.

• Due to the injuries caused by skateboarding, this sport had been banned in Norway between the years 1978 and 1989.

• A skateboard deck is made from seven pieces of plywood maple. This fact can never be recognized by the naked eye.

TEXT 10. SURFING

Surfing is something people often get hooked on after trying it a few times. For many surfers it is much more than a hobby – they would probably agree with the American professional surfer Kelly Slater when he said ‘Once you’re in, you’re in. There’s no getting out.’

Surfing, of course, means riding on waves in the ocean using a surfboard. Many surfers stand up on their boards, which requires good balance and is therefore difficult for most beginners to learn, but some lie down (‘bodyboarding’).

The history of surfing probably began with the Polynesian people of the Pacific Islands. One of the first white people to see anyone surfing was the British explorer Captain Cook, when his ship arrived in Hawaii in 1778. He watched many Hawaiians riding waves on large pieces of wood, and saw that ‘they seem to feel a great pleasure’.

When surfing started to become very popular in the United States in the 1950s and 60s, surfers used large wooden boards (often more than 3 metres long) that were quite heavy. Boards today are almost always shorter and also much lighter, because they are made of artificial materials instead of wood.

For anyone who wants to try surfing, the only essential things are waves and a board. There are a few other things, however, that most surfers find important: a cord to attach one of their ankles to the board and therefore stop the board going a long way away when they fall off; wax, which they put on the surface of the board to help their feet stick to it; and a wetsuit to help them keep warm in cold water. The south-west of England is an example of a place where surfers usually need wetsuits, even in summer.

Surfing has been a professional sport for many years and the very best surfers are able to make a living from it. Most of the best professional surfers in the last 30 years, both men and women, have been American or Australian, but surfers from Brazil, Peru and South Africa have also won important competitions.

TEXT 11. OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES FOR ADULTS

If you are an adult who has a busy daily schedule, then keeping some time aside to indulge in interesting outdoor activities is a great idea to recharge your energy levels for another hectic week. Read on to know about various such activities that adults can enjoy.

"All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." Everyone is trying hard to move ahead in today's world of tough competition. Every person is extremely busy with his/her daily schedule. Are you one of them? You may have experienced that you often end up feeling exhausted. This is the right time to take a break from your daily routine and get some much-needed relaxation. As children, we had so much fun playing with our friends on the playground, swinging upside down and hanging out on those colorful slides. But, who says that adults can no more have fun doing outdoor activities? Firstly, as counter-intuitive as it may sound, outdoor activities are very revitalizing for the mind, soul as well as the body. Secondly, they keep you feeling fit and young. Now, would you say no to some adventure and amusement? Check out here some interesting options for activities that you could consider for your next weekend trip. Interesting Outdoor Activities for Adults Modern lifestyle is loaded with so much stress and tension, it fails to surprise me that we now suffer from such a ginormous list of physical and mental health problems. Many people opt for different relaxation techniques for stress management. Wonder if it truly helps though. Anyway, I really believe that inside each one of us is a child who is waiting to be set free. You see what I mean? I find outdoor activities are one of the best options to relieve stress and get refreshed physically and mentally. They give you an opportunity to enjoy the beauty of nature and can be used as an effective medium for education and team building too. You could do it alone and feel the sense of accomplishment of a one-man/woman mission or be accompanied by a group of friends and bond more with each other. Either ways, you create memories as you go. There are several different types of outdoor activities that adults can enjoy. They can be categorized as forest activities, mountain activities, aero activities, desert activities, freshwater activities and beach.

TEXT 12. DARTS

The player, a 49-year-old Englishman nicknamed ‘The Power’, walks forward to the line on the floor and looks at the target. He will win £200,000 in prize money if he can guide the object between his fingers to a small area on the edge of the circular board in front of him. The crowd in the indoor arena in London has spent most of the game shouting and cheering, but now falls silent. A much bigger audience is watching live on TV, this being one of the most popular televised sports in Britain. He throws, and the crowd erupts – he’s world champion again! Most people who have lived in Britain will know that the sport described above is darts. The modern form of darts developed in Britain as a game people played in pubs while having a drink and chatting to friends, and the local pub is still the place where most of Britain’s darts players practise their skills. At least 6 million people – ten per cent of the total population – play the game at least occasionally. Since the 1970s darts has also been a serious professional sport, with world championships in which players from more than 30 countries now compete. The most important championships are usually dominated by British players, the most successful of whom is the aforementioned Phil ‘The Power’ Taylor, but Dutch and Australian players have also done well in recent years.

The sport involves throwing pointed metal darts, from a distance of around 2.5 metres, at a circular board (dartboard) with a diameter of about 45 centimetres. Games are usually contested by two players, who take it in turns to throw three darts at the board. The darts are usually around 15 centimetres in length and have very thin pieces of plastic (flights) attached to their tails that allow them to fly well, while most dartboards are made of a special fibre that allows the darts to penetrate and yet doesn’t get damaged by them.

The board is divided into sections, numbered 1 to 20, for which the players score a corresponding number of points when they hit them with their darts. Low numbers are usually next to high numbers so as to punish players who are inaccurate when aiming for a high number. Within each of the 20 sections there is also a small ‘double’ and an even smaller ‘treble’ (or ‘triple’) area: a player scores 20 points for hitting the double area of the 10 section, for example, and 30 points for hitting the treble.

The maximum score with one dart is 60, achieved by hitting the treble 20. Good players often achieve this, even though each treble section is less than one centimetre wide, and professional players sometimes manage it with three consecutive darts, which always brings a roar from the crowd and an excited shout of ‘one hundred and eighty!’ from the referee.

TEXT 13. BASKETBALL

What is the most popular sport in the world? Most people would probably say football, because of the many millions who play it and the even larger number who watch it on television. There are some, however, who say the correct answer is basketball – not because of its TV audience, which is certainly smaller than that for football, but because the number of people who regularly play the game might be higher (at least 300 million according to most estimates). In China, for example, which has a population of 1.3 billion, more people play basketball than football, and it is becoming more popular all the time.

Basketball has existed for less time than some of the world’s other major sports. It was invented in the early 1890s by a Canadian, James Naismith, working at a college in the state of Massachusetts in the United States. Wanting to create a game that could be played indoors during the long winters but would also be active enough to keep people fit, he had the idea of two teams of players trying to throw a ball into a basket that was above their heads.

Early basketball looked different from the game today: for example the basket didn’t have a hole in the bottom, so every time a player threw the ball in, someone had to go up to get it out again! Another difference is dribbling, which is when a player in modern basketball bounces the ball off the floor while moving across the court: it didn’t exist in early basketball because the balls didn’t bounce well enough. One thing that hasn’t changed, though, is the height of the baskets: James Naismith put the first one 10 feet (3.05 metres) off the floor, and that’s where they’ve stayed. The biggest international TV audiences in modern basketball are for games in the National Basketball Association (NBA) in North America, a league of thirty teams (twenty-nine from the United States and one from Canada) including famous names such as the Chicago Bulls, Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers. Most of the players in the NBA are American but there are also some foreign stars such as Yao Ming from China and Dirk Nowitzki from Germany.

The United States has usually been the strongest team in international basketball competitions. In the last Olympic Games, in Beijing in 2008, the US men’s and women’s teams both won gold medals – the men beat Spain in the final and the women beat Australia.

TEXT 14. RUGBY

Rugby is a sport that has many millions of fans around the world, even though there are some countries in which it is hardly played at all.

The old saying that rugby is ‘a ruffian’s game played by gentlemen’ was always partly a joke but it does indicate two things: first that rugby is a physically tough and occasionally violent game (although it can also be beautiful and spectacular), and second that it was developed in an ‘upper class’ environment. Indeed, its name comes from the fact that it is said to have been invented on the playing fields of Rugby school, an exclusive private school in England, in the 1820s.

There are now two main forms of rugby, the more widespread of which is played by two teams of fifteen players on a grass pitch about 100 metres long and 70 metres wide.

It’s probably fair to say that the rules are more complicated than those of football and that someone watching it for the first time might sometimes find it difficult to understand what’s going on.

The basic idea, however, is for each team to move the oval-shaped ball towards the end of the pitch defended by their opponents. The players can pick up, carry and throw the ball as well as kicking it (although they can only throw it backwards or sideways, not forwards), and when a player is carrying the ball forwards the opposing players are allowed to stop him by pulling him to the ground.

There are different ways to score points but the highest number (five) is for a ‘try’, which is when an attacking player manages to get through the defending players to put the ball down on the ground behind the line at the end of the pitch.

As with football and cricket, rugby spread around the world in the nineteenth century with the expansion of the British Empire. The game is popular in the ex-British colonies of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa – three countries whose national teams are always among the best in the world. Not all the major rugby nations are English-speaking, though: France are one of the best teams and Argentina – better known for football, of course – have also been doing well.

Like football, rugby has a World Cup competition that takes place every four years. The last one was in 2007, in France, when the champions were South Africa, who beat England 15-6 in the final. The next World Cup will be in New Zealand in 2011, when the home team – known as the ‘All Blacks’ because of their black shirts, shorts and socks – will probably be the favourites.

THE BICYCLE

You might be surprised to know that bicycles have existed for less than two hundred years. No one is sure who invented this popular two-wheeled machine, but it was probably either the German Karl von Drais, in 1817, or the American W K Clarkson, in 1819.

The early models didn’t look much like the bicycles of today. The front wheel was much bigger than the back one, and also there weren’t any pedals – riders had to move themselves forward by pushing their feet against the ground.

Pedals finally arrived in the 1840s, and in 1879 an Englishman named Henry Lawson had the idea of connecting them to the back wheel with a chain. Gears, which made things much easier for those cycling uphill, first appeared in the 1890s.

There are now approximately one billion bicycles in the world – more than twice the total number of cars – and they are the main form of transport in some developing countries. They have to compete with cars on the streets of all the world’s cities, and the two forms of transport don’t always mix well. In London in 2005, for example, over 300 cyclists were either killed or seriously injured in accidents involving cars. Even though bicycles are much more environmentally friendly than cars, most governments don’t do much to encourage people to ride rather than drive. In China, which is famous for having a huge number of bicycles (about 200 million), the authorities in the city of Shanghai even banned cycling for a while in 2003.

Cycling is on the rise is the United Kingdom, and the number of annual journeys made by bike in London has increased 50% over the last five years. Experts say there is a mixture of reasons for this boom: concerns about the environment, the desire to keep fit, and also the fact that cycling is often not only cheaper but also quicker than travelling by car.

TEXT 15. CRICKET

Cricket, although loved by millions of people, is not one of the easiest sports to understand. Indeed, the game has lots of subtle complexities, and it’s probably fair to say that cricket fans tend to be quite proud of them.

The sport originated in England and spread to many parts of the former British Empire, hence its popularity today in countries such as Australia (the current world champions), New Zealand, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and many of the islands of the Caribbean.

You could perhaps describe cricket as being a bit similar to baseball, but cricket fans probably wouldn’t appreciate the comparison as they tend to see their game as much more sophisticated!

The basic facts of cricket are that it is played on a roughly oval -shaped grass field (usually at least 50% bigger than the average football pitch) by two teams of eleven players who take it in turns to ‘bat’ and to ‘field’.

The batting team has two of its players on the pitch at any one time, and the objective of these ‘batsmen’ is to score as many ‘runs’ as possible. To score runs the batsman uses a wooden bat to hit the ball that is thrown by the member of the fielding team known as the ‘bowler’. Unlike in baseball, the bowler has to make the ball bounce off the pitch before it reaches the batsman.

The bowler tries to get the batsman ‘out’, which usually happens in one of three ways: if the ball hits the ‘wicket’ (three vertical pieces of wood, about seventy centimetres high) that the batsman stands in front of; if the batsman uses his leg instead of his bat to block a ball that would have hit the wicket; or if one of the members of the fielding team catches the ball, after the batsman has hit it.

When ten of a team’s players are out, or when the bowling team has thrown the ball a certain number of times, it is the other team’s turn to bat. The team that scores more runs is the winner.

Внимание! Задания к следующим статьям:

1. Read the article.

2. Make some general remarks concerning the content of the paper using words and expressions from Useful Vocabulary Section.

3. Discuss the structure of the paper.

4. Give some positive comments.

5. Express your criticism or objections.

6. Analyze the data, results and their presentations.

7. Make a conclusion

ARTICLE 1.

SOURCES OF LEGAL LIABILITY AMONG PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHERS

Alla Joseph Babalola

Head, Department of Physical and Health education

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun state, Nigeria

Abstract

Legal issues in Physical Education are very germane to sport and physical activity development. Consequently, Physical Education teachers should be involved in studying laws that relates to P.E in the course of their professional preparation. It is worth noting that today, people are becoming more aware of their rights under the law. This has further awakened the need to ensure that Physical Education teachers are made to know the legal implications of negligently caused injuries in P.E class and also fashion-out “preventive mentality” in respect of these injuries. Unfortunately, it has been discovered that sports law is not included in the curriculum of physical Education in Nigeria. When dealing with various types of Physical Education programmes, P.E. teachers must look to protect themselves from any tortuous liability. To be able to do this, they must be familiar with the scenerios in which they can be vulnerable to tortuous liability.

Negligence is a tort that is often used to implicate P.E. teachers. It is very important that they understand the nuisances of tortuous liability and its relationship to P.E profession. They should also be aware of the legal defenses available to them if, despite all precautions, they are accused for negligence. The purpose of this study therefore is to discuss the concept of tortuous liability, what constitute negligence, sources of negligence in sport and the defense against negligence. This will reduce the possibility of there been liable.

Keywords: Negligence, Tortuous, Sport participation, Liable, Sanction

1. Introduction

Experts in the field of Physical Education are perturbed by the non-inclusion of sport law in the curriculum of Physical Education in tertiary institutions in Nigeria for instance. Legal issues in Physical Education are very germane to physical activity development; P.E. teachers should therefore be involved in studying laws that are related to P.E. This is because undermining these legal issues may have negative consequences on Physical Education development in Nigeria (Adesanya, 1992). Hence, major conditions and parameters as legal issues in Physical Education/Sports must be given enough priority.

It is worth noting too that the society is getting more enlightened as people are increasingly aware of their legal rights in all fields of human endeavour. This has further awaken the need to make know the legal implications of negligently caused injuries in P.E, moreso, when one realizes that victim will want to look for various sources to foot their medical bills except from their own pockets. Consequently, there is the need to fashion-out ” preventive mentality” in respect of Physical Education/Sport programmes and aspects of general standard , most especially when one may have to cough out the litigation fees for negligence due to ignorance. We are all aware that there is no room for ignorance in law.

An examination of the long list of items in the Exclusive Legislative list in Nigeria for instance, revealed the non-inclusion of Physical Education/Sports. Also, a perusal of items under Second Schedule of part II. Of the Concurrent Legislative list of 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria revealed the non-inclusion ofsport also. So, legal issues in P.E/Sports are concerned with the determination of rights and duties. Duty is the corollary of rights in the process of social interaction man qua man. While right describes what the person’s duty is what is due to the other person with whom he is in social interactions (Agbojimi, 2002).

The point at which law and Physical Education find expression is Section 40 of 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which guarantees to every person the freedom to assemble freely, and associate with others, and in particular, to form or belong to any other association for protection of one’s interest (Agbonjimi, 2002). When dealing with various types of Physical Education programmes organizations, P.E teachers must look to protect themselves from any legal liability. To be able to do this, they must be familiar with the scenarios in which they can be vulnerable to legal liability. Legal liability can be defined as one taking responsibility for an act of omission or commission. Legal liability is caused by ‘Negligence’. Negligence consists of the failure to act as a reasonably prudent as the persons would under the circumstances involved. It can be seen as any conduct which falls below the standard established by law for the protection of others against unreasonable risk of harm. Negligence is a tort that is often used to implicate P.E teachers. It is very important that P.E. teachers understand the nuisances of tortuous liability and its relationship with the P.E profession. They should also be aware of the legal defenses available to them if, despite all precautions, they are accused of negligence (Irwin, Sutton, and McCarthy, 2002).The purpose of this study therefore is to discuss the concept of tortuous liability, what constitutes negligence, sources of negligence and defense against negligence. This will reduce the possibility of there been liable and assist in the development of Physical Education profession.

2. Tortuous Liability

Tort law is more deeply embedded in the past than any other branch of the common laws. Until comparatively recent times, a plaintiff under common law could sue in tort only if he could fit his claim into one of the recognized forms of action for which some particular writ of summons are available. In striking contrast to the development in common law, tort law in legal systems based on the civil law, seems to have advanced much from its historical roots (James, 2006). He also reported that the great jurist of the law of nature in the 17th and 18^th centuries enunciated the general principle that everybody shall be held liable for the damage caused by his fault and this principle has been embodied in various forms in many civil codes. An example is presented by article 1382 of the French code or Napoleon code. Many other civil codes based on the French mode have subsequently adopted similar provision. Other legal systems in the civil-law sphere have chosen somewhat more restrictive solution. The German civil code, for example grants protection to various specifically mentioned interest (Encyclopeadia Britanica). The law of torts in the earlier stage of its evolution usually consisted of a miscellaneous and more or less unconnected group of specific rules protecting a few particular interests against harmful interferences of a particular kind. Roman law for example, knew three principal torts:

Initurie – Intentional interference with persons

Furtum – Intentional interference with properties

Lex Aquila – covering losses caused by negligence.

The law of tort is the branch of the common law which is of immense importance in Nigeria. The rapid commercial and industrial growth which the country has experienced in the last few decades has ensured that there will never be a shortage of litigation in the major areas of tort liability, such as negligence (Kodilinye, 1990). Okupa (1992), Agbonjimi (2002) and Yakasai (2002) revealed that it is in the area of tortuous liability that the interesting lines between law and PE/Sports are prominent. As cases arising from P.E/Sporting activities seldom come before the courts in Nigeria, its jurisprudence is yet to take form but with modernization and exposure of people in this age of technology, we shall soon get to that point when students will institute legal action on issues that affect their well being. Ogunyemi (2008) revealed that most Nigerian students are beginning to know their rights under the law.

Tortuous liability arises as a result of breach of duty primarily fixed by the law; this duty is toward persons generally and its breach is redressible by an action for unliquidated damages (Reade and Bucher, 1975, Okupa, 1992, Agbonjimi, 2002). Torts is a branch of private law with its comparison, the law of contracts, it spells out the legal rules which regulate ‘’civil obligation’’. Torts can be described as a civil wrong involving a branch of duty fixed by the law, such duty being owned to persons generally and its beach being redressible primarily by an action for damages (Kodihinye, 1990 and Ogunyemi, 2002).

Wong (1994) perceived ‘tort’ as a legal term used in both common and civil-law systems to describe various wrongs that may give rise to civil proceedings, mainly in the form of an action for damages. It is concerned with the prevention of or compensation for harm sustained by a person through the unlawful or dangerous activities of others. The word ‘tort’ has its origin in the Latin word for tortuous, which means ‘twisted or ‘crooked’. It thus describes vividly the irregularity of the harmful conduct for which the law of tort provides a remedy. It is a harmful act against a person which gives the person the right to collect money for damage he suffered. Bucher (1975) and Yakasai (2002) asserted that P.E. teachers’ liability is ‘tort’ liability, that is, it is liability for personal or property injuries caused through the defendant’s negligence. Any tort action involves proof of four elements;

• That the defendant owed a duty to avoid unreasonable risk to others

• That the defendant failed to observe that duty

• That the failure to observe that duty caused the damage which occurred

• That the damage in fact occurred to plaintiff.

3. P.E Teachers and Torts

P.E teachers are subject to unusual rule covering tort liability. That is, they are liable for injuries resulting from their negligence and not liable, regardless of the kind of injury, if not negligent.

3.1 Concept of Negligence

From a practical point of view, negligence is the most important and dynamic of all torts. Its emergence as a separate tort in the early part of the nineteenth century coincided with the industrial revolution in England and the advent of machinery, railway and motor vehicles; and to this day it has retained its function as the principal means of compensating the victims of accidents, particularly those occurring in factories or on the roads. In Nigeria, negligence has only comparatively recently begun to assume the prominence which it has long enjoyed in the industrial common law countries and the increase in negligence litigation in Nigeria is directly linked with the dramatic growth of commercial activity and road traffic during the post-independence period (Kodilinye, 1990). Yakasai (2002) defined negligence as the failure to act as a reasonable, prudent and careful person would act under the circumstance to avoid exposing others to unreasonable danger or risk of injury or harm.

Bucher (1975) asserted that negligence is something that a reasonable person would not do or failure to do something that a reasonable person would do. It is failure to carry out one’s legal duty or failure to do something that could have been done with common sense. Agbonjimi (2002) noted that there are four fundamental conditions that must be tested by the jury and considered with respect to the particular circumstances of the case in other to prove negligence.

• A right must exist on the part of the plaintiff, and a corresponding duty must exist on the part of the defendant towards the plaintiff’s right.

• There must be a breach or failure on the part of the defendant to observe the duty towards the corresponding right of the plaintiff.

• That breach of duty must be the cause of the damages which occurred.

• The plaintiff must suffer damages.

3.2 Sources of Negligence

3.2.1 Supervision

According to Adesanya (1992), the importance of supervision in P.E/Sports cannot be over emphasized. Many cases involving negligent behaviours have been attributable to teachers’ lack of adequate supervision during physical activities. However, mere lack of supervision may not necessarily create liability, but the determining factor is whether or not such lack or inadequate supervision was the proximate cause of the injury. However, Emiola (1978) asserted that lack of supervision during sporting activities is frequently used as ground for litigation. It is lack of supervision if you fail to take appropriate care to prevent an accident. Along with the general duties associated with supervision, is matching and equating opponents in commonsense manner (Nygaard and Boon, 1985). In the case of Brooks V Board of Educ. a seventh-grader was injured in a gym class during a game of line soccer. The suit claimed that a physical mismatch was created by the negligent pairing of the students. The court ruled for the plaintiff, saying that the pairing for such a game, including both the site and the equipment was hazardous, hence the respondent was liable thus, was guilty of negligence.

3.2.2 Proper Instruction

According to Bucher (1975) and Yakasai (2002), this is a situation where the teacher failed to employ due care to give adequate guide and warning. For instance, if the instructor, although responsible for supervision absented himself or herself from the physical activity area. Cases involving various area of instruction frequently come before the courts in developed nations. The major complaint is that the player did not receive adequate instruction in the particular activity and for this reason, there was accident. Two examples of this are Larson v Inde. School Dist. No. 314 and Braham and Thompson v Seattle School Dist. No. 1. In the Larson case, an eighth-grader broke his neck while attempting to perform a head spring. The plaintiff showed that there was no reasonable progression of instruction in the preliminary gymnastics exercises leading up to the running head spring as outlined in the curriculum guide, and therefore the instruction was negligence. The Thompson case addressed the issue of warning the player of the inherent risk associated with football. Thompson a 15-year-old running back, caught a pass on the sideline and attempted to lower his head and run through an approaching tackler. The tragic consequence was a severed spinal cord injury. The teacher was liable in this case because he did not warn the student of the inherent risk involved in making contact with the head while playing. Consequently, the plaintiff was awarded 6.4 million dollar (Nygaard and Boon, 1985).

3.2.3 Equipment and Facilities

According to Pennman (1977) and Ajibua (2001), facility is used to designate ‘’play area’’ which are surfaced and equipped with such permanent or semi-permanent equipment as post, backboards and backstops. The planning, scheduling and maintenance of facilities and equipment should be the function of any P.E teachers (McQuila and Abraham, 2010). For example, if a student is injured in a tumbling race because the mat was not firmly fixed or slippery, the teacher will be found liable. The court will favour the injured student when official(s) have prior knowledge of hazard or condition which must be adjusted or repaired. An example is Gillmore V. London county council (1938). The plaintiff was a member of a physical training class run by the defendant. During an exercise in which members of the class were jumping at each other, one of them was injured through losing his balance on a floor which was slippery (although of course, he had consented to the physical contacts which occurred in the course of the jumping exercise). The defense of assumption of risk argued by the defendant in the case could not stand; he ought to have applied commonsense and disallowed the athletes from exercising on a slippery ground.

3.2.4 Injuries from Sport Participation

According to Emiola (1978), one area of athletic participant injuries is equal competition. Injuries arising from activities too advanced for the skill level, strength and maturation of the pupils can bring about suit of negligence against P.E teacher.

It is a known principle in P.E. profession that activities must be commensurate with the abilities of athletes.

4. Defense Against Tort

Should a suit be brought against a P.E. teacher for negligent action of some kind, he may base his legal defense on one or more of the following premises;

4.1 Proximate Cause

Negligence must be the direct and immediate cause remotely concerned with the injury or else the claim will be disallowed. Proximate cause is the situation where it could be established that negligence is closely connected with the injury. The teacher so charged (the defendant) may defend himself by basing his case on certain defenses like ‘Act of God’. Furthermore, the negligence of the defendant may not have been the proximate cause of the plaintiffs injury, for example in the case of Ohmon V. Board of the city of New York, 88 N.V.S. 2n 273 (1949), it was declared that when a 13 year old pupil in a public school was struck in the eye by a pencil thrown by another pupil to a third pupil who stepped aside, the case of injury was an unforeseen act of the pupil who threw the pencil and that absence of the teacher (who was taking stock in a closet nearby the gymnasium) was not the proximate cause of injury. Therefore the teacher could not be held liable. The negligence conduct must be a substantial factor in causing the injury or the claim will be disallowed.

4.2 Contributory Negligence

The law of negligence as applied to Physical Education is, prima facie, the same as is applied to determine negligence in any other field of activity and is based on Lord Atkins “neighborhood,’, Donoghue v Steveson (1932) AC 62. Thus the defendant must owe the claimant a duty to take reasonable care not to cause him harm, the defendant must have breached that duty by falling below the standard of behavior acceptable for that particular activity and that reasonably foreseeable harm must have been caused as a result of the breach of duty. The defense that claimant may face is that the act of the defendant fell below the standard of a reasonable P.E teacher.

Kodilinye (1990) viewed contributory negligence basically as negligence of the plaintiff himself which combines with the defendant’s negligence in bringing about the injury to the plaintiff. He further asserted that the conduct of the defendant under this situation had not lived up to that of the hypothetical reasonable and prudent man, but that the plaintiff would not have been injured or if injured at all such injuries would have being minimal if he (plaintiff) had behaved carefully. Nwegbu (1978) pointed out that it is the conduct on the part of the plaintiff, contributing as a legal cause to the injury he has suffered. Age can be a strong determinant of whether the injured person was matured enough to understand the consequence of his action, eighteen years of age seems to be the magic number in Nigeria. Bucher (1975) agreed that contributory negligence may occur when the injured person does not act as a reasonably prudent person of his age should act. In this case the negligence of the P.E. Teacher is cancelled. Adefarati J. in Olayinka V. Latin (1972) is a case in which an action for damages was brought under the fatal accident Law 1961 on behalf of the dependants of a cyclist who was knocked down and killed as a result of the defendants negligent driving. The deceased was held to have been contributorily negligent in entering the high way without first making sure it is save to do so (Kodilinye, 1990).

4.3 Unavoidable Accident

Emiola (1978) postulated that if an injury is not caused by negligence in its legal context, it is the result of accident unavoidability strongly implying unforeseenbility on behalf of all parties. In such case no liabilities can be asserted against the teacher. Hyath (1977) viewed unavoidable accident as an event which cannot possibly be prevented by the exercise or ordinary care, caution or skill. It is a defense for the defendant to establish that a certain event or result occurred despite the exercise of reasonable care on his part.

4.4 Volenti Non Fit Injuria (Assumption of Risk)

According to Kodilinye (1990) and Agbonjimi (2002), assumption of risk means no injury is done to one who consent. In order word, no person can enforce a right which he has voluntarily waived or abandoned. Consent means in effect, the agreement of the plaintiff, expressed or implied to exempt the defendant from duty care he would otherwise have owed. Vendien and Nixon (1985) pointed out there are lots of cases in which a party may suffer injuries for which tort law will not provide him with any remedy either because he consented or at least assented to the doing of the act which caused him injury. One who has invited or assented to an act being done toward him cannot when he suffers from it complain of it as a wrong.’’ Adedeji (1976) and Yakasai (2002) refer to assumption of risks as a risk which is assumed that an individual takes when engaging in various contact sports and games. The participant voluntarily and fully-assumed the dangers and accepted to abide by the consequences.

4.5 Act of God

Kodilinye (1990) asserted that where the injuries caused to a student is the result of natural forces free from human intervention, the defense of the ‘Act of God’ may be available. For example, if a player is struck by thunder during a training session, the P.E. teacher will not be liable because it is a natural occurrence which he cannot control. The defendant will not be made liable for an extra ordinary act of nature which he could not reasonably have anticipated. Emiola (1978) postulated that ‘Act of God’ is a situation that exists because of certain condition that are beyond the control of human beings, as lighting striking and injuring a soccer player. However, the courts have kept this defense within a very narrow campus, and there appears to be only few reported cases in which it has been allowed (Kodilinye, 1990).

4.6 Sudden Emergency

Emiola (1978) perceived this as pertinent in cases where the exigencies of the situation require immediate action on the part of a teacher and as a result, an accident occurs. For instance, if a student is drowning in the swimming pool and the P.E. teacher is running there to save him and in the course of his running if he collides with a pupil who sustain an injury, such a teacher will not be liable.

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

Negligence, therefore, is recognized as a special area of tort liability which has to be proved before any form of sanction acceptable in law can be invoked. Physical Education teachers need to be very conscious of their activities in P.E lesson so that they will not be liable. It is very important that P.E teachers at various levels are well-tutored in the area of Legal liabilities in Physical Education. To achieve this, the following recommendations are made:

1) Laws related to Physical Education and Sports must be included in the curriculum of P.E at the undergraduate level.

2) P.E teacher should consider age (Chronological and training age), sex, and developmental level of learners.

3) P.E. teacher must be present and punctual for practical lessons where items of equipment are to be used by students

4) Equipment must be removed from the play ground and properly stored under lock and key.

5) Facilities such as playgrounds and swimming pool should be inspected before they are put to use by the learner so as to remove any foreseeable hazard that may cause injuries to participants.

ARTICLE 2. ANTHROPOMETRIC PROFILE AND SPECIAL JUDO FITNESS LEVELS OF INDIAN JUDO PLAYERS

Jayasudha Katrall

Department of Physiology,

J.N.M.C. Belgaum, India

Abstract

Purpose: Judo is a complex sport where different anthropological parameters determine performance. Judo, as a sport is not well known in India. There is evident lack of data concerning the anthropological determinants of judo players. This study was conducted to determine the anthropometric profile and Special Judo Fitness levels of judokas.

Methods: This cross sectional study was conducted on 31 judo players. Anthropometric profile was assessed by measuring height, weight, body mass index, body circumferences at seven sites, seven site skin fold thickness and body fat percentage as per standard accepted protocol. Special Judo Fitness Test – a specific test to evaluate the judo athlete's physical condition was applied. Statistical analysis done using Student’s unpaired ‘t’ test and correlation by Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient.

Results: Out of 31 judo players 20 had ≤5 yrs of judo practice (A group) and 11 >5 yrs of judo (B group). Anthropometric findings of both the judo groups were the same. Body fat has negative correlation (r =-0.690, P<0.05) with performance in SJFT. Observations during and after special judo fitness test were also similar.

Conclusions: Long term training has a minimal effect on anthropometry. Judo athletes of similar age when submitted to the same training type tend to show equal performance in the game and fitness levels after certain years of training. We also confirm existence of negative correlation between body fat and performance.

INTRODUCTION

Judo is a Japanese art and an Olympic sport, in which besides technical skill and tactical strategies, conditional (physical and physiological) characteristics are also indispensable for success in competition and for training. Competitive judo can be described as a combative, high intensity sport in which the athlete attempts to throw the opponent onto his back or to control him during groundwork combat. Both attempts depend on specific techniques and tactical skills with the support of good physical fitness. Being aware of the anthropometric and physiological characteristics of an elite athlete will pave the way for his success. As judo is a weight-classified sport, high level judo players should have low body fat. It has been suggested that percentage of body fat may be a discriminator for Success.

Judo is the sport in which movements are powerful, delivered in a short period of time, usually against the force of the opponent. It is a sport of changeable intensity of effort. During contest, the non-stop periods of maximum or submaximum intensity are separated by longer or shorter breaks. Fitness levels in judokas are evaluated based on special judo fitness test (SJFT) which gives effort tolerance levels in them. This test is of intermittent character with breaks between the test and uses a specific movement (throw) of the game called ippon-seoi-nage. The evaluation of physical characteristics is an important part of the training process because it gives information about the variables that need to be improved and about the effectiveness of a given training program. Hence, this study was undertaken to define and interpret the possible anthropological determinants, and special judo fitness levels in Indian judo practitioners.

METHODS AND SUBJECTS

Participants and procedures:

The present study was a cross sectional study conducted in the Department of Physiology, Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Belgaum between January 2009 and December 2009. Using universal sampling, data was collected from 31 Judo players practicing regularly for a minimum period of 3 years and who were in the age group of 18-25yrs. Information about their practice schedule, number of players and their availability was collected from the Judo coaches. Descriptive data of the participant’s age, medical history, training schedule regarding number of years of judo practice, number of days in a week, number of hours per day, dietary history were obtained by interviewing the participants. The study was approved by the Ethical and Research Committee of the institution. Players were briefed about the nature of the study and written informed consent was obtained.

Protocols and equipment:

The participants were divided into two groups depending on number of years of judo training. Judo A group consisted of players with ≤ 5 years of Judo and Judo B group consisted of the senior players with > 5 years of training. Both groups had been exposed to similar training regimens and the diet given to them was similar as all of them resided in the same sports hostel. Anthropometric measurements included: Height (m) was measured by a commercial stadiometer, Weight (kg) was recorded by digital scale with an accuracy of +100g, body mass index (BMI) was calculated from height and weight using Quetelet’s equation:

BMI = body weight in Kg / (height in meters).

Body Circumferences (cm) at seven sites (relaxed arm, flexed arm, forearm, wrist, thigh, calf and chest) were identified and measured using measuring tape as per standard protocol. Skin fold thickness (mm) was measured by Herpenden skin fold calipers (Anand agencies, Pune). Seven sites (triceps, subscapular, midaxillary, abdomen, suprailiac, medial calf and proximal thigh) were identified on the right side of the body and body density was calculated. Body fat % was calculated using SIRI’S EQUATION.

Special judo fitness test:

Two judokas (uke) of similar stature and body mass of the performer are positioned at 6m of distance of one another, while the performer of the test (tori) is three meters of distance from the judokas that will be thrown. The test is divided into three periods of 15s (A), 30s (B) and 30s (C) with intervals of 10s. During each one of the periods the performer throws the partners using the ippon-seoi-nage technique as much as possible. Immediately after and 1 minute after the end of the test, the athlete's heart rate is verified. The total of throws accomplished in this period is added and an index is calculated.

Data and Statistical analysis:

Statistical analysis involved quantitative variables summarized through mean and standard deviation. Difference between the mean of the two groups was tested using Students unpaired ‘t’ test, where significance of the p value was < 0.05 To evaluate strength of association between performance (number of throws) in special judo fitness test and body weight/body fat among Judo players Karl Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated.

RESULTS

In this study out of 31 players 20 fall in group A and 11 in group B, depending on number of years of Judo training. The results shows the anthropometrical results from group A compared to group B which shows that no significant difference was found for these variables, Except that the height of players of A group was higher than B group players with statistically significant difference. Special judo fitness test shows no significant difference in performance

DISCUSSION

In the present study the height of A group was higher than B group judo players with a statistically significant difference. A study done on Polish judo players concluded that the body height of the fighters was moderately connected with the preferred techniques in combat. Hand techniques were preferred by short and medium-height fighters and leg techniques by tall fighters. In this study, there was no significant difference in body weight of the two judo groups and a non significant negative correlation between body weight and performance in the SJFT.

Despite there being no difference between the groups in anthropometrical characteristics, it is important to note that the body fat percentage was the same in both groups but, when compared to data on non players of same age from literature there was a huge difference that indicates that judo players were lean, this supports the assumption that judo players try to maximize lean body mass and minimize fat mass. It may also be just a reflection of physiological adaptations to long-term judo training. One study reported that elite judo athletes had higher circumferences (flexed arm, forearm, wrist, and medial calf) than non-elite judo players.

In the present study both groups had similar values in all these circumference measures. This finding corroborated with one of the studies, which reported that there were no differences in circumferences between the competing vs. non-competing judokas. A study on Brazilian elite and non elite players showed no difference in any skinfold measure which was a finding in this study also. This might be due to similar training sessions for all the players. The best proof of physical capacity is the practice of the sport. Therefore, the effects of endeavor in this discipline may be assessed on the basis of the competitor’s maximum metabolic abilities clashing with each other during combats.

In this study in SJFT not much difference was seen in number of throws, heart rate or SJFT Index between two judo groups. This finding was similar to the studies done before which indicates the same level of development and similar cardiovascular stress during this test for both groups. Recently a normative table was proposed to classify performance in the SJFT.

The athletes of the present study are classified as good in all variables in this test (number of throws, heart rate after, heart rate 1 min after, and index). Two studies reported a higher number of throws and a lower index in judo players (Brazilian and Polish) at the national level compared to athletes at a lower level.

A decrease in the heart rate (HR) at the end of the test with a given number of throws proves the efficiency of the cardiovascular function in the two groups. Decrease in the same heart rate after 1 min of the test proves better regeneration and reflects the improvement in the aerobic function. Limitations of this study are a small sample size and inability to evaluate physiological and biochemical features of our athletes. The data provides the judo player with information on ideal profile and where training might be directed to compensate for areas where the athlete is below average for successful judo players. A judo player who does not match the ideal profile can still succeed through improved or superior techniques and tactics.

CONCLUSION

The following conclusions can be drawn from this study: long term training has a minimal effect on anthropometry. Physical components are not discriminatory to the performance of Judo athletes. The higher the fat percentage, the lower is the performance in activities involving body displacement (negative correlation). In SJFT no significant difference was found among judo groups in the performance indicating that athletes around the same age submitted to the same training type tend to have similar performance in the test after certain years of training. Further studies with large sample size should be carried out and difference between sexes in terms of anthropometry and performance should be focused. Physiological and biochemical features which might affect performance should be studied.

ARTICLE 3. SOCIAL NETWORKING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION: UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS’ VIEWS ON NING

Dr. Gülfem SEZEN BALCIKANLI

Gazi Üniversitesi,

Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu,

Abant Sok. Gazi Mahallesi, Ankara,TURKEY

ABSTRACT

It was the aim of this study to investigate physical education undergraduate students’ views on the use of social networking, one of the most typical representations of Web 2.0 technologies. In order to do so, the researcher, who was the instructor of the class, entitled “Fair Play Education in Sport”, introduced Ning and its educational aspects to her students with a 50-minute presentation prior to the study. Following this, the students were encouraged to use this networking for 15 weeks in parallel with their class. During this application, the researcher helped the students to make the best use of Ning in educational settings. Upon the implementation, the researcher interviewed the students (n=19) in five groups on the basis of the questions prepared and piloted earlier. The interviews demonstrated that the students enjoyed using social networking in educational settings.

The findings of the study were the following: Increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction, enhancing student motivation and classroom climate, sharing materials with the instructor and students, making use of students’ interests and needs, and making learning process more interesting and permanent. The research concluded that social networking could be used in PE classes effectively.

Keywords: Web 2.0, social networking, PE students.

INTRODUCTION

Web 2.0 has been in use since Q’Reilly (2005) described it as “web-based technology that facilitates and promotes communication and sharing among others worldwide”. This two-way interaction Web 2.0 technologies provide is of great significance in education due to their open nature, ease of use and support for effective collaboration and communication (Coutinho, 2008; Gura and Percy, 2005).

The new version of Web, which differs from Web 1.0, can be very useful in contributing to the effectiveness of learning processes as long as 21^st century educators employ them effectively. Richardson (2008) offers four benefits of using these technologies in educational settings;

new opportunities for learners to take more control of their learning and access their own customized information, resources, tools and services,

an array of expressive capability,

more collaborative of working, community creation, dialogue and sharing knowledge, d) a setting for learner achievements to attract an authentic audience.

In order to address 21^st century kids, known as “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001), “Generation N” (Caldwell et al., 2006) “Net Generation” (Toman et al., 2005) “Grasshopper Mind” (Raines, 2005), it is more than a requirement that web 2.0 technologies be utilized in educational settings. As McLoughlin and Lee (2010) claim, digital-age students want an active learning experience that is social, participatory and supported by rich media. Along those lines, situated learning theory shifts the view of learning from a cognitive process to a process of participation in an emotional sense in the social world (Lave and Wenger, 1990, cited in Lave and Wenger, 1998).

This shift leads to a growing interest in the need to support and encourage learners control over the whole learning process (Dron, 2007). Siemens (2007) believes that the world is changing and schools and universities play a key role in accommodating this change by transforming learners and preparing them to function in the world that is unfolding. Several researchers (Conole and Creanor, 2007; Windham, 2005a, 2005b) report that many students today juggle work and study, expect Internet connectivity and web based services and more importantly view social networking tools as being central to their lives. Thus, teachers of these digital students need to be equipped with digital literacy to creatively integrate ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) into their courses (Silverman, 1997). Otherwise, an unfilled gap is likely to occur between teachers and their students, which may hinder the learning process.

As far as physical education is concerned, it is believed that web tools can be used by PE (Physical Education) teachers to develop their own performances and to foster students’ learning processes. Several studies looked at issues such as office applications (Güclü, 2010; Silverman, 1997; Yaman, 2007a; 2007b; 2009) multimedia software and its impact on motor skills (Mohnsen, 2008), instructional video analysis software to improve pupils’ understandings on underlying concepts and techniques (Ladda et al., 2004), effects of web technologies on students’ satisfaction (Vernadakis et al., 2012), and web developers as physical educators (Papastergiou, 2010). In a similar fashion, multimedia educational software, in Mohnsen’s research (2008), constituted an important tool which;

- helped students understand PE-related concepts,

- introduced students to motor skill techniques,

- provided simulations and practice experiences,

- supported self-paced learning and unlimited practice,

- provided immediate and constructive feedback, and

- accommodated various learning styles.

Specifically designed for primary and secondary school students, such software programmes played a key role in teaching cognitive concepts such as fitness concepts and motor skills including basketball skills (Siskos, Antoniou, Papaioannou, and Laparidis, 2005; Vernadakis et al., 2012). The results of the aforementioned two studies indicated that the software offered very promising results concerning the concepts namely fitness and motor skills.

Another area of research in the context of PE in terms of web technologies is that Internet offers numerous opportunities to remain professionally current by providing various information sources and facilities for communication with colleagues (Lazerte and Lathrop, 2006; Pennington et al., 2004; Thornburg and Hill, 2004). In line with modern learning approaches, web technologies are designed to offer constructivist-learning experiences for students.

The trend that students are encouraged to design individual projects combining various digital media and text images is existent in 21st century school environments.

According to a research study conducted in the USA, PE teachers are aware of the importance of web technologies at the service of education and pupils better understand the concepts and skills under study and critically reflect on their progress through these technologies (Mohnsen, 2008). In other words, such technologies are likely to help students evaluate the learning process, which ultimately leads them to be aware of their competencies more effectively. Despite the popularity of online technologies at the service of education, surprisingly not many studies are available in the field of physical education except a few (Ladda et al., 2004; Lazerte and Lathrop, 2006; Mohnsen, 2008; Özsoy, 2011; Pennington et al., 2004; Sezen, 2009; Silverman, 1997; Siskos et al., 2005; Papastergiou, 2010; Thornburg and Hill, 2004; Vernadakis et. al., 2012).

More specifically, the importance of social networking, one of the most striking realizations of Web 2.0 technologies, is not mostly pronounced in the studies of physical education. Web 2.0 technologies can be effectively used for PE students who receive both theoretical and applied classes. For instance, web technologies can be employed in theoretical classes like fair play education, sports philosophy and olympism where topics such as ethics, sports personship, match-fixing and aggressive behaviors are interactively discussed. These theoretical classes are very important especially in terms of increasing the quality of learning and teaching processes, and making use of recent technological innovations to capture students’ attention. In a similar vein, in online environments, current sports events can be integrated into classroom environments so as to increase the effectiveness and dynamics of the class.

This way students are encouraged to research about the topics, which is mostly related to personalized learning experiences. Thus, the use of social networking is an important component of educational processes for students. In this regard, this study aims at investigating undergraduate students’ views on the use of social networking in educational settings with a specific emphasis on Ning.

EDUCATIONAL THEORIES AND SOCIAL NETWORKING

Boyd and Ellison (2007, p. 1) describe social networking sites as “web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, to articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and to view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system”. Abbitt (2007) states that there has been “tremendous growth in the popularity of websites focusing on social activities and collaboration. Since SixDegrees was introduced as the first social networking site, sites such as MySpace, Facebook, Cyworld, Bebo and Ning have attracted the attention of millions of users, many of whom have integrated these sites into their daily practices (Boyd and Ellison, 2007).

Several researchers (Albion, 2007; Barlett-Brag, 2006; Pettenati and Ranieri, 2006; Selwyn, 2007a, 2007b) maintain that social networking is the best place for several learning theories and approaches namely a) informal learning, b) cooperative learning, c) communities of practice (CoP). The concept of informal learning is all that is learned throughout life in day-to-day processes at home, work and leisure (Mason and Rennie, 2007). Informal learning refers to all kinds of learning that occurs outside the curriculum of formal or informal institutions. Employing two main categories namely intentionality and consciousness, Schugurensky (2000) offers three various forms of informal learning.

Self-directed learning, incidental learning and socialization. Once the characteristics of informal learning are considered, it is evident that new technologies, more specifically social networks, create great opportunities for learners to experience this kind of learning. Mazman and Usluel (2010) examine the potential of social networking, namely Facebook in educational settings. 606 participants of the study who use social learning in their educational contexts confirm that they experienced social learning due to the possibilities social networking offers.

New technologies facilitate the design of online communication and information exchanges to empower the learners and create an enriched social learning landscape (Bartlett-Bragg, 2006). Likewise, the use of social networking supports the development of informal learning in that it keeps learners busy doing variety of things on their own raises their awareness and shapes their thinking frames (Gillet et al., 2008).

Finally, Selwyn (2007a) pinpoints that there is a need for educators to be wary of simply importing informal Web 2.0 application into classrooms on the presumption of transforming formal education into informal learning processes. Additionally, Web 2.0 applications receive much enthusiasm in educational settings because they reflect daily life, contain spontaneous relationship, and trigger the knowledge creation and sharing very properly.

Another educational theory behind social networking, cooperative learning can be described as “a set of processes which help people interact together in order to accomplish a specific goal or develop an end product which is usually content specific” (Panitz, 1996).

Along those lines, teachers tend to share the authority with their own learners, which foster the development of collaboration and cooperation between learners and the teacher.

In this connection, the use of web technologies at the service of education allows learners to access any kind of information, ideas, documents, and experiences regardless of the border and the time.

This, without a doubt, triggers collaborative learning among learners. The second-generation net tools like blogs, wikis, podcasts, RSS and social networking sites have a great contribution to collaborative learning environments where learners co-work on different kinds of projects (Selwyn, 2007a). The term, communities of practice, was first used by Lave and Wenger (1991, cited in Lave and Wenger, 1998, p. 22) to refer to “the process of social learning that occurs when people who have a common interest in some subject or problem collaborate over an extended period to share ideas, find solutions and build innovations”. According to Wenger (2006), communities develop their own practice through a variety of activities including problem solving, requests for information, and seeking experience. Learning is no longer seen as “the acquisition of knowledge within the mind of an individual, but as the movement from peripheral to full participation in a community of practice” (Wubbels, 2007). As seen above, several learning theories and approaches are much related to the concept of social networking mainly because of the overlapping characteristics.

NING

Ning (http://www.ning.com), a typical social networking site, is a web-based social platform launched in 2005. As of June 2011, Ning has 65 million monthly unique visitors globally on its platform (Frommer, 2011). Ning has 90,000 customers with social websites on the Ning Platform (Geron, 2011).

Its current venue is US$30.0 million (2011 est.).

Like other social networking sites, it is a fast growing one with similar features that others offer. This site offers possibilities for is users to create their own social networks depending on their interests and favorite activities. Ning allows users to do the following actions. a) text searching, media sharing (e.g. photos, music, and videos), interaction (e.g. forum, chat, comments, blog), and content delivery (e.g. RSS feeds). One of the most crucial features of Ning is that it offers the users to customize their sites and to design the site’s appearance in light of their own purposes. The reason why Ning was chosen for this study was because it was associated with educational settings in the relevant literature.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Participants

In order to answer this research question, this study was carried out with a group of physical education undergraduate students (N= 19; F=12, M=7) in a state university in Turkey. The participating students were enrolled in the class "Fair Play Education in Sports" conducted by the researcher. The researcher opened a group in Ning, an online platform for people to create their own their own social networking. Before the semester began, the researcher gave a 50 minute-interactive presentation to introduce Ning to students so that they could be familiar with this social networking.

During the presentation, she also focused on the educational benefits of Ning giving some specific examples from the literature.

Measures

Upon the implementation, the researcher interviewed them by asking the questions prepared and piloted earlier. The interview questions went through different processes before they were used to collect the data of the study. First, fourteen questions were formulated on the basis of the learners’ experiences online. Dörnyei (2003) believes that in the process of writing questions some external feedback is indispensable especially when an initial item pool is prepared.

With this in mind, these questions were sent off to two experts on the use of web technologies in psychical education to get their suggestions for content/construct validity. In light of the suggestions made by these experts, it was decided that ten questions would be enough to use in the first place. Field-testing, which is an integral part of questions writing is “piloting the questions at various stages of their development on a sample of people who are similar to the target sample for which the questions have been asked”.

These ten questions were piloted with five students who were familiar with social networking. Fourth, after the implementation of the questions, it turned out that some interview questions were not clear enough for participants to respond properly. The questions that could be considered to be vague were removed from the list of interview questions. Fifth, there were five questions left to collect students’ views on the use of social networking in educational settings.

Finally, the researcher conducted a semi-structured interview with the participating students. After the participants were informed about the content and objectives of the study, the interviews were conducted with one participant at a time, between 40 minutes and 50 minutes. All interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim.

The interview sessions were completed in Turkish and in three weeks during April 2011.

Procedures

As time continued, the researcher uploaded everything related to the class she was teaching. The syllabus, class notes, exam dates, discussion questions, course content, relevant links and assignments were uploaded regularly on the website. Furthermore, the students were asked to open a personal account where they were also encouraged to upload class materials, videos, pictures, links, assignments they prepared and to comment on these materials in an interactive way. The researcher helped them whenever necessary to overcome technical difficulties.

Analysis

The analysis of qualitative data was mostly based on categorizing the data collected immediately. The qualitative data were analyzed by the researcher. The constant comparative method, which is derived from the grounded theory (Strauss and Corbin, 1990), was used in analyzing the data. Strauss and Corbin (1990) state that the constant comparison method has four distinct stages: comparing incidents applicable to each category, integrating categories and their properties, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory. In the process, the data were read until some underlying themes were discovered. These themes were transformed into the aspects, the findings of the study. The procedure was completed after validating all the data with the participants. The final step was to translate the processed and categorized data into English.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This study explored physical education undergraduate students’ views about social networking namely Ning in educational settings. Overall, it found that students mostly considered Ning as an effective educational tool. The findings of the study indicated that students’ experiences in Ning focused on two main aspects, namely; increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction on several topics like class assignments, group projects, relevant course content and examinations, and enhancing student motivation, affective learning, and classroom climate Increasing Student-Student and Teacher-Student Interaction

One of the most valuable findings of this research was that students regarded the use of social networking in educational settings as increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction.

Even though there were aspects related to this specific finding, we put related dimensions under the category of “increasing student-student and teacher-student interaction” mainly because the dimensions are more or less related to each other.

“Ning has enabled us to communicate more with the instructor at any time. I sometimes fail to understand the concepts discussed in the class. I was asking about them online. The instructor was helping me out right away” (Student B).

As easily seen in the remarks above, the use of Ning helped improve the communication between student-student and teacher-student, which is an important aspect of effective learning. In other words, the fast communication increases interaction in the form of web-based communication, which is in tune with the study of Fischman (2008). In a similar fashion, Keleş and Demirel (2011) came up with similar results in their research in that Facebook assisted course facilitated the aspects like sharing and cooperation, accessing to the lecturer, and also visualizing the course content for some students. Another important finding emanating from the research was that the use of Ning created unique opportunities for participating students to exercise situated learning as learning was viewed mostly as a process of participation in the social world. As Lave and Wenger (1991, cited in Lave and Wenger, 1998) argued, learning emerges from engagement in social interaction.

“It is possible that we continue learning more about the concepts outside the class. Thanks to Ning, specifically videos and posts, we were given a chance at interacting with each other to take a deeper understanding of the related concepts” (Student A).

The concepts such as community of learners, community of inquiry, learning community and community knowledge were very related to students’ comments. As is seen above, the participating students were involved in a social interaction surrounding them in a constructive sense. Furthermore, the social networking served as a platform where students could easily exchange their ideas, assignments or projects at ease. As Selwyn (2007a, 2007b) puts it, social networking provides meaningful contexts for learning to take place.

That is to say, Ning helped the instructor connect with her students about assignment, upcoming events, useful links and samples of work outside the classroom.

“It was pretty feasible to exchange documents online. More importantly, when I found something I thought useful and interesting for my classmates, I posted it online so that they could view it. Later on, we exchanged our ideas about the issue” (StudentC).

This statement is highly related to the concept of social interaction (Vygotsky, 1978).

The concept of social web is commonly linked to and supported by applications of social media that are designed for social interaction and information exchange. In this particular regard, the success of social networking rests on how well students are socially connected to each other. Yet another crucial aspect of social networking in educational settings is that it has the capacity to enable peer-feedback as expressed by Mason and Rennie (2007).

More specifically, the students were giving feedback to each other’s work very effectively through Ning. When a student posts on any assignment, his/her classmates comment on the work in question. This obviously triggers the collaboration among peers, which is in line with the principles of cooperative learning.

This finding is related to the assumption that social networking is being considered as an educational tool because of its beneficial qualities such as peer-feedback, goodness of fit and interaction.

“I was able to reach the class notes very easily. In the other classes,

I have a difficult in reaching class notes. I have to photocopy them, which takes a lot longer than I think. Ning, however, allows me to reach the class materials at ease (Student D).”

Ning, in this study, helped students reach any kind class materials very easily, which could also be considered to be a motivating factor. That is to say, the students reported that like all social networking sites, Ning was very influential in offering great opportunities for students to get the materials related to specific class. This is a very important finding because 21st century kids should be allowed to exchange the information easily and fast (Gross and Acquisti, 2005; Hewitt and Forte, 2006).

Likewise, Russo, Watkins, and Groundwater- Smith (2009) also related social networking in CoPs (Community of Practices) to informal learning. They posited that social media played a central role in creating knowledge-sharing experiences in informal settings.

Enhancing Student Motivation, And Classroom Climate

In the 21^st century, the understanding of learning has gone through several alterations in line with the changing landscapes of educational actions. Situated learning theory which shifts the view of learning from a cognitive process to a process of participation in the social world recommends that students be involved in a learning environment where they are motivated to take actions to learn. As Campbell (2006) puts it, learning ecologies created great opportunities for students to increase their motivation. In this regard, the 21st century students can be more motivated to learn specifically when their interests and learning go hand in hand. In other words, if students’ daily activities are reflected in their learning processes, it is likely that the learning process will be actualized at the very best level. Educators are under obligation to know what is going on in their own lives so that they can create learning ecologies accordingly. The participating students had the following views regarding the motivation Ning offered/provided.

“It is a great thing to use Ning in educational settings. It is not what we used to do in the past. Paper documents! Ning is easier and more interesting, I think. More importantly, I have a Facebook account. I use something like Facebook (Ning) for educational purposes” (Student G).

The students were of the opinion that using social networking played a key role in motivating them to learn more about the content itself. This is mainly because they really enjoyed being online in Ning discussing several issues related to the course. As Prensky (2001) claims, students’ interests should be reflected in learning processes, which will pave the way for the development of learning skills. Ajjan and Harsthone(2008) presented very similar benefits of social networking sites in educational settings. First, it increases students’ learning to a great extent.

Second, it facilitates interaction between the teacher-students, and students-students.

Third, it makes students more motivated for the classes.

Fourth, it develops students’ writing skills. Finally, it makes easier for students to get involved in the learning process.

As is easily seen, the findings of the current research are very in tune with those of several studies (Norris, 2002; Resnick, 2001; Wellman, Hasse, Witte, and Hampton, 2001). Thus, using social networks in an academic context is attractive for undergraduate students. Students will be given a chance to acquire new knowledge through subliminal, effective and smooth learning processes while taking part in enjoyable interactive situations mediated through interesting and motivating tools and content (Gillet, El Helou, Yu, and Salzmann, 2008).

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

This study set out to investigate the physical education undergraduate students' experiences with and views on the integration of social networking sites in the examined courses. The interview results indicate that participating students find the use of social networking namely Ning very useful specifically in terms of two topics like class assignments, group projects, relevant course content and examinations, and 2) enhancing student motivation, and classroom climate. The findings are in tune with those of relevant studies in the literature (Ajjan and

Harsthone, 2008; Rebecca et al., Selwyn, 2007a).

The findings are highly critical mainly because there are not many studies available in the area of physical education and PE teachers’ or student teachers’ perspectives on the use of social networking in educational settings. On the whole, student teachers seemed to feel that Ning should be employed in educational settings due to following reasons. First, Ning offer great opportunities for students and teacher to interact with each other in a social manner. Second, it allows students to reach the class content and materials posted very easily online. Third, it encourages students to share their assignments and projects with each other.

Fourth, it offers a platform where students and teacher can discuss the relevant topics and give feedback to each other’s work.

Fifth, it enables students to focus on the class materials outside the classroom, which is closely linked to independent learning.

Finally, it increases students’ motivation to do more research about the topics in question. Therefore, social networking plays a salient role in reaching students and developing student teachers’ experiences with web technologies by offering more opportunities for greater motivation, negotiation and decision-making. In light of the findings gathered from the students, it turned out that they did not have any negative opinions about the use of social networking. Rather, they believed that social networking could contribute to the effectiveness of learning/teaching processes. A social networking account for a specific class is believed to offer great opportunities in the following way:

- It keeps students motivated for the class.

- It serves a platform where students are encouraged to discuss the relevant issues.

- It keeps the content updated at any time.

- It enables students to pose questions about the class content and to receive responses at once.

These opportunities are so striking that teachers and students are under pressure to make use of social networking in educational settings. On the basis of the findings of this research study, the following points should be considered seriously in educational settings.

In order to attract the attention of PE students, sports events may be posted online so that a discussion forum can be created to keep the topic updated, which fosters the acquisition of relevant topics.

These social networking sites can also be used for practice classes. For instance, social networking can be used while teaching how to teach volleyball and basketball.

More specifically, students can be recorded when they are teaching these skills and these recordings can be shared on these social networking sites in order for them to give feedback to each other’s performances.