Intrinsic motivation and interest

Global intrinsic motivation - the generalized desire to invest effort in the learning for its own sake - is largely rooted in the previous attitudes of the learners: whether they see the learning as worthwhile, whether they like the language and its cultural, political and ethnic associations. However, you can certainly help to foster these attitudes by making it clear that you share them, or by giving further interesting and attractive information about the language and its background.

Such global motivation is important when the course is beginning, and as general underlying orientation during it; but for real-time classroom learning a more significant factor is whether the task in hand is seen as interesting. It is in the arousing of interest, perhaps, that teachers invest most effort, and get most immediate and noticeable pay-off in terms of learner motivation.

WAYS OF AROUSING INTEREST IN TASKS

1. Clear goals

Learners should be aware of the objectives of the task - both language-learning and content. For example, a guessing-game may have the language-learning goal of practising questions, and the content goal of guessing answers.

2. Varied topics and tasks

Topics and tasks should be selected carefully to be as interesting as possible; but few single types can interest everyone, so there should be a wide range of different ones overtime.

3. Visuals

It is important for learners to have something to look at that is eye-catching and relevant to the task in hand (see Wright and Haleem, 1991).

4. Tension and challenge: games

Game-like activities provide pleasurable tension and challenge through the process of attaining some 'fun' goal while limited by rules. The introduction of such rules {an arbitrary time limit, for example) can add spice to almost any goal-oriented task.

5. Entertainment

Entertainment produces enjoyment, which in its turn adds motivation. Entertainment can be teacher-produced (jokes, stories, perhaps songs, dramatic presentations) or recorded (movies, video clips, television documentaries).

6. Play-acting

Role play and simulations that use the imagination and take learners out of themselves can be excellent; though some people are inhibited and may find such activities intimidating at first.

7. Information gap

A particularly interesting type of task is that based on the need to understand or transmit information - finding out what is in a partner's picture, for example. A variation on this is the opinion gap where participants exchange views on a given issue.

8. Personalization

Learners are more likely to be interested in tasks that have to do with them themselves: their own or each other's opinions, tastes, experiences, suggestions.

9. Open-ended cues

A cue which invites a number of possible responses is usually much more stimulating than one with only one right answer: participants' contributions are unpredictable, and are more likely to be interesting, original or humorous.

Основная литература: 26, 31

Дополнительная литература: 52, 72

Тема лекции №9

Language-learning research

9.1 Research traditions in applied linguistics

9.2 Some key concepts in research

9.3 Action research

Research traditions in applied linguistics

The very term research is a pejorative one to many practitioners, conjuring up images of white-coated scientists plying their arcane trade in laboratories filled with mysterious equipment. While research, and the conduct ofResearch methods in language learning research, involves rigour and the application of specialist knowledge and skills, this rather forbidding image is certainly not one I wish to present here. I recently asked a group of graduate students who were just beginning a research methods course to complete the following statements: 'Research is ...' and 'Research is carried out in order to ...' Here are some of their responses.

Research is:

- about inquiry. It has two components: process and product. The process is about an area of inquiry and how it is pursued. The product is the knowl­edge generated from the process as well as the initial area to be presented.

- a process which involves (a) defining a problem, (b) stating an objective, and (c) formulating an hypothesis. It involves gathering information, classifi­cation, analysis, and interpretation to see to what extent the initial objec­tive has been achieved.

- undertaking structured investigation which hopefully results in greater understanding of the chosen interest area. Ultimately, this investigation becomes accessible to the 'public'.

- an activity which analyses and critically evaluates some problem.

- to collect and analyse the data in a specific field with the purpose of proving your theory.

- evaluation, asking questions, investigations, analysis, confirming hypoth­eses, overview, gathering and analysing data in a specific field according to certain predetermined methods.

Research is carried out in order to:

- get a result with scientific methods objectively, not subjectively.

- solve problems, verify the application of theories, and lead on to new insights.

- enlighten both researcher and any interested readers.

- prove/disprove new or existing ideas, to characterise phenomena (i.e., the language characteristics of a particular population), and to achieve per­sonal and community aims. That is, to satisfy the individual's quest but also to improve community welfare.

- prove or disprove, demystify, carry out what is planned, to support the point of view, to uncover what is not known, satisfy inquiry. To discover the cause of a problem, to find the solution to a problem, etc.

Certain key terms commonly associated with research appear in these char­acterisations. These include: inquiry, knowledge, hypothesis, information, classification, analysis, interpretation, structured investigation, understand­ing, problem, prove, theory, evaluation, asking questions, analysing data, sci­entific method, insight, prove/disprove, characterise phenomena, demystify, uncover, satisfy inquiry, solution. The terms, taken together, suggest that research is a process of formulating questions, problems, or hypotheses collecting data or evidence relevant to these questions/problems/hypotheses; and analysing or interpreting these data.

Traditionally, writers on research traditions have made a binary distinc­tion between qualitative and quantitative research, although more recently it has been argued that the distinction is simplistic and naive. Reichardt and Cook (cited in Chaudron 1988), for example, argue that in practical terms, qualitative and quantitative research are in many respects indistinguishable, and that 'researchers in no way follow the principles of a supposed paradigm without simultaneously assuming methods and values of the alternative par­adigms' (Reichardt and Cook 1979: 232). Those who draw a distinction sug­gest that quantitative research is obtrusive and controlled, objective, gener-alisable, outcome oriented, and assumes the existence of 'facts' which are somehow external to and independent of the observer or researcher. Quali­tative research, on the other hand, assumes that all knowledge is relative, that there is a subjective element to all knowledge and research, and that holistic, ungeneralisable studies are justifiable (an ungeneralisable study is one in which the insights and outcomes generated by the research cannot be applied to contexts or situations beyond those in which the data were collected). In metaphorical terms, quantitative research is 'hard' while qualitative research is 'soft'.

In an attempt to go beyond the binary distinction between qualitative and quantitative research, Chaudron (1988) argues that there are four research traditions in applied linguistics. These are the psychometric tradition, inter­action analysis, discourse analysis, and ethnography. Typically, psychometric investigations seek to determine language gains from different methods and materials through the use of the 'experimental method' (to be dealt with in detail in Chapter 2). Interaction analysis in classroom settings investigates such relationships as the extent to which learner behaviour is a function of teacher-determined interaction, and utilises various observation systems and schedules for coding classroom interactions. Discourse analysis analyses class­room discourse in linguistic terms through the study of classroom transcripts which typically assign utterances to predetermined categories. Finally, eth­nography seeks to obtain insights into the classroom as a cultural system through naturalistic, 'uncontrolled' observation and description (we shall deal with ethnography in Chapter 3). While Chaudron's aim of attempting to transcend the traditional binary distinction is a worthy one, it could be argued that discourse analysis and interaction analysis are methods of data

Qualitative research

Advocates use of qualitative methods

Concerned with understanding human

behaviour from the actor's own

frame of reference Naturalistic and uncontrolled

observation Subjective Close to the data: the 'insider'

perpsective Grounded, discovery-oriented,

exploratory, expansionist,

descriptive, and inductive

Process-oriented Valid: 'real', 'rich', and 'deep' data Ungeneralisable: single case studies Assumes a dynamic reality

Quantitative research

Advocates use of quantitative methods

Seeks facts or causes of social phenomena without regard to the subjective states of the individuals

Obtrusive and controlled measurement

Objective

Removed from the data: the 'outsider' perspective

Ungrounded, verification-oriented, confirmatory, reductionist, inferential, and hypothetical-deductive

Outcome-oriented Reliable: hard' and replicable data

Generalisable: multiple case studies

Assumes a stable reality

Figure 1.1 Terms commonly associated with quantitative and qualitative approaches to research (adapted from Reichardt and Cook 1979)

collection rather than distinct research traditions in their own right. In fact these methods can be (and have been) utilised by researchers working in both the psychometric and ethnographic traditions. For example, ethnographers can use interaction analysis checklists to supplement their naturalistic obser­vations, while psychometric research can use similar schemes to identify and measure distinctions between different classrooms, teaching methods, approaches, and teachers (the studies reported by Spada 1990 are excellent examples of such research).

Grotjahn (1987) provides an insightful analysis of research traditions in applied linguistics. He argues that the qualitative-quantitative distinction is an oversimplification and that, in analysing actual research studies, it is nec­essary to take into consideration the method of data collection (whether the data have been collected experimentally or non-experimentally); the type of data yielded by the investigation (qualitative or quantitative); and the type of analysis conducted on the data (whether statistical or interpretive). Mixing and matching these variables provides us with two 'pure' research paradigms. Paradigm 1 is the 'exploratory-interpretive' one which utilises a non-experi­mental method, yields qualitative data, and provides an interpretive analysis of that data. The second, or 'analytical-nomological' paradigm, is one in which the data are collected through an experiment, and yields quantitative data which are subjected to statistical analysis. In addition to these 'pure' forms, there are six 'mixed' paradigms which mix and match the three vari­ables in different ways. For example, there is an 'experimental-qualitative-interpretive' paradigm which utilises an experiment but yields qualitativedata, which are analysed interpretively. The different research paradigms -exulting from mixing and matching these variables are set out in Figure 1.2.

PURE FORMS

Paradigm 1: exploratory-interpretive

1 non-experimental design

2 qualitative data

3 interpretive analysis

Paradigm 2: analytical-nomological

1 experimental or quasi-experimental design

2 quantitative data

3 statistical analysis

MIXED FORMS

Paradigm 3: experimental-qualitative-interpretative

1 experimental or quasi-experimental design

2 qualitative data

3 interpretive analysis

Paradigm 4: experimental-qualitative-statistical

1 experimental or quasi-experimental design

2 qualitative data

3 statistical analysis

Paradigm 5: exploratory-qualitative-statistical

1 non-experimental design

2 qualitative data

3 statistical analysis

Paradigm 6: exploratory-quantitative-statistical

1 non-experimental design

2 quantitative data

3 statistical analysis

Paradigm 7: exploratory-quantitative-interpretive

1 non-experimental design

2 quantitative data

3 interpretive analysis

Paradigm 8: experimental-quantitative-interpretive

1 experimental or quasi-experimental design

2 quantitative data

3 interpretive analysis

Figure 1.2 Types of research design (from Grotjahn 1987: 59-60)

Brown (1988) provides a very different introduction to research from van Lier, being principally concerned with quantitative research. In his frame­work for analysing types of research, he draws a distinction between primary and secondary research. Secondary research consists of reviewing the litera­ture in a given area, and synthesising the research carried out by others. Nor­mally, this is a necessary prerequisite to primary research, which 'differs from secondary research in that it is derived from the primary sources of infor­mation (e.g., a group of students who are learning a language), rather than from secondary sources (e.g., books about students who are learning a lan­guage)' {1988: 1). Hence, it has the advantage of being closer to the primary source of information. Primary research is subdivided into case studies and statistical studies. Case studies centre on a single individual or limited number of individuals, documenting some aspect of their language development, usu­ally over an extended period of time. Statistical studies, on the other hand, are basically cross-sectional in nature, considering 'a group of people as a cross section of possible behaviors at a particular point or at several distinct points in time. In addition, statistical analyses are used in this approach to estimate the probability, or likelihood, that the results did not occur by chance alone' (p. 3). In Brown's model, statistical studies are further subdivided into survey studies and experimental studies. Survey studies investigate a group's atti­tudes, opinions, or characteristics, often through some form of questionnaire. Experimental studies, on the other hand, control the conditions under which the behaviour under investigation is observed.

experimental

survey

statistical

Case study

secondary

primary

Types of research

Figure 1.4 Types of research

Two procedures open to researchers are inductivism and deductivism. Deductive research begins with an hypothesis or theory and then searches for evidence either to support or refute that hypothesis or theory. Inductivism seeks to derive general principles, theories, or 'truths' from an investigation and documentation of single instances. Numerous commentators have criti­cised what is called naive inductivism (see Chalmers 1982), which is the belief that we can arrive at the 'truth' by documenting instances of the phenomenon under investigation. Popper (1968, 1972) illustrated the naivety of inductiv­ism with his celebrated swan example. He pointed out that we are never enti­tled to make the claim that 'All swans are white', regard/ess of the number of sightings of white swans. Though we may have sighted one thousand white swans, there is nothing to say that the one thousand and first sighting will not be a black swan. This led Popper to advance his falsificationist principle. This principle states that while we can never conclusively demonstrate truth through induction, we can in fact falsify an assertion through the documen­tation of a single disconfirming instance (as in the case of the black swan). According to Popper, all hypotheses should therefore be formulated in a way which enables them to be falsified through a single disconfirming instance. Taken to its logical conclusion, this view would have it that all knowledge is tentative and that, in fact, 'absolute truth' is an ideal which can never be attained.

Two terms of central importance to research are reliability and validity, and I shall return to these repeatedly in the course of this book. Reliability refers to the consistency of the results obtained from a piece of research. Validity, on the other hand, has to do with the extent to which a piece of research actually investigates what the researcher purports to investigate. It is customary to distinguish between internal and external reliability and validity, and I shall deal with each of these briefly in this section. The descrip­tion and analysis provided here is developed and extended in subsequent chapters.

Reliability refers to the consistency and replicability of research. Internal reliability refers to the consistency of data collection, analysis, and interpre­tation. External reliability refers to the extent to which independent research­ers can reproduce a study and obtain results similar to those obtained in the original study. In a recent investigation into classroom interaction, one of my graduate students coded the interactions of three teachers and their students using an observation schedule developed for that purpose. I also coded a sam­ple of the interactions independently. There are two types of validity: internal validity and external validity. Internal validity refers to the interpretability of research. In experimental research, it is concerned with the question: Can any differences which are found actually be ascribed to the treatments under scrutiny? External validity refers to the extent to which the results can be generalised from samples to populations. Researchers must constantly be alive to the potential and actual threats to the validity and reliability of their work. Table 1.2 provides two sample studies which illustrate the threats to validity posed by poor research design.

One of the problems confronting the researcher who wishes to guard against threats to external and internal validity is that measures to strengthen internal validity may weaken external validity and vice versa, as Beretta has shown.

Internal validity has to do with factors which may directly affect outcomes, while external validity is concerned with generalisability. If all variables, such as treatments and sampling of subjects, are controlled, then we might say that laboratory conditions perrain and that the experiment is more likely to be internally valid.

However, if the researcher carried out the study in context, this may increase the external validity but weaken the internal validity.

In addition to internal and external validity, researchers need to pay close attention to construct validity. A construct is a psychological quality, such as intelligence, proficiency, motivation, or aptitude, that we cannot directly observe but that we assume to exist in order to explain behaviour we can observe (such as speaking ability, or the ability to solve problems). It is extremely important for researchers to define the constructs they are inves­tigating in a way which makes them accessible to the outside observer. In other words, they need to describe the characteristics of the constructs in a way which would enable an outsider to identify these characteristics if they came across them. Brown characterises the notion of a psychological construct in the following way:

A psychological construct is a theoretical label that is given to some human attribute or ability that cannot be seen or touched because it goes on in the brain....

TABLE 1.2 THREATS TO INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY POSED BY POOR RESEARCH DESIGN: SAMPLE STUDIES

Example

I nternal validity under threat In an investigation of three different methods of teaching grammatical structure, three teachers in three different schools are each trained in one of the methods and apply it to their classes. One teacher has three mixed ability classes, another has four mixed ability classes, and the third has two homogeneous groups of fast track learners. At the end of the term, each group is administered a test devised by their teacher.

External validity under threat (Adapted from Wiersma 1986) A study investigates the effect of length of visual exposure on the ability to memorise and recall nonsense words. Subjects are ten postgraduate students who are undertaking a master of arts program in psychology. There are five different lengths of exposure, so five groups of two volunteers each receive different lengths of exposure.

Critique

In this investigation, the results are uninterpretable. It is impossible to say whether the results are due to the method, the proficiency of the students the skill of the teacher, or the ease of the test.

Assuming that the performance scores generally increase with increased length of exposure, the question remains: To which populations and conditions can the results be generalised? Can they be generalised to primary and secondary students learning meaningful material? Can they be generalised to young adults working on meaningful tasks in a highly structured situation? The answer to both questions is no. The results may not even be generalisable to the graduate student population, since the participants were volunteers

Основная литература: 28, 35, 43

Дополнительная литература: 46, 50

Тема лекции №10

Teacher development: practice, reflaction, sharing

10.1 Teacher appraisal

10.2 Advancing further: intake

10.3 Approching teaching practice

Ongoing teacher development is important not only for your own sense of progress and professional advancement; in some situations it may even make a crucial difference between survival and dropping out.

The first year of teaching, for example, can be very stressful. This is true particularly, though not only, of those teaching large heterogeneous classes of children or adolescents in schools. Difficult first years cause some new teachers to leave the profession; and even many of those who remain find their original confidence and optimism significantly, if temporarily, undermined. Constant teacher development and progress can forestall or solve problems caused by both first-year stress and later burn-out. More positively, it is a necessary contributor to your success and satisfaction in professional work today, and to your career in the future as teacher and/or in other allied professions: materials writer, trainer, author, researcher.

Teacher appraisal

Few institutions have systematic teacher-appraisal systems; and where these d exist, they are very often for hiring-and-firing purposes rather than to assist professional improvement and learning. The effect may therefore be stressful and demoralizing rather than helpful.

However, for your own benefit it is important to carry out some periodic appraisal of your teaching, on the principle that you cannot move ahead without having a fairly clear idea of where you are now. Obvious sources o: feedback on your teaching are colleagues, your own students - and yourself:

Feedback from colleagues

Asking a colleague to come in and observe a lesson of yours and give you feedback may present difficulties: most of us feel a little uncomfortable abou: being observed teaching, and cannot function naturally when we know an observer is in the room; and it takes some courage deliberately to expose yourself to criticism in this way.

Student feedback

It is relatively unusual for teachers to ask their students for feedback on their teaching; perhaps because of a fear of undermining their (the teachers') authority or of losing face. This is a pity. Students are an excellent source of feedback on your teaching: arguably the best. Their information is based on a whole series of lessons rather than on isolated examples, and they usually have a fairly clear idea of how well they are learning and why. Moreover, they appreciate being consulted, usually make serious efforts to give helpful feedback; and my experience is that the process tends to enhance rather than damage teacher-student relationships.

Applications to students should be phrased so as to direct their appraisal towards themselves as well as to you, and towards positive suggestions rather than negative criticisms.

Self-appraisal

Personal self-appraisal should also be done in writing. Unrecorded reflection, as noted in the previous unit, allows you to digress, or to indulge disproportionately in whatever is currently occupying your mind, whereas writing forces you to stick to the topic in hand, and to be concise and reasonably ordered and balanced in your thinking. One simple system is to divide a page into two columns, headed 'problems' and 'successes', to fill in appropriate items as completely and honestly as you can, and then go on to consider conclusions.

STUDENT FEEDBACK SHEET ON TEACHING

Name_________________Class_________________

1. On the whole I feel I am learning very well / fairly well / don't know / not very well /badly

2. I find the lessons interesting / moderately interesting / boring

3. Things I would like to do MORE in our course:

pronunciation practice / vocabulary / grammar / listening / speaking / reading / writing / literature / homework / group or pair work / individual work Other (say what):

4. Things I would like to do LESS in our course:

pronunciation practice / vocabulary / grammar / listening / speaking / reading / writing / literature / homework / group or pair work / individual work Other (say what):

5. In order to get the most out of the course, I need to try to ...

6.In order to make the course better, my suggestions to my teacher are . . .

7 . Anything else:

Advancing further (1): intake

The first two units dealt with some ideas for professional progress and development within the routine of a full teaching schedule. These, however, car. advance you only up to a point: sooner or later you will be looking for ways to learn more, to broaden your professional knowledge and thinking outside the immediate resources of your own institution. What are the possibilities?

Reading

If your circumstances do not allow you to attend formal courses of study, this does not mean that you cannot advance your own learning beyond that afforded by interaction with people within your own institution. The main source of such further learning is simply reading.

Most institutions have a basic library of professional literature and this is where you will probably start. When choosing what to read, it is a good idea first to ask colleagues what books they have found interesting and useful. Another source of recommendations is this book: suggestions for reading on specific topics are appended to each module; and some suggestions for reading on language teaching and learning in general can be found at the end of this one. A third source of ideas is simply a 'browse' through the relevant sections of a library or bookshop until you find a book or journal that attracts you.

Journals are an excellent and convenient source of reading material: their articles are relatively short and easier to cope with than a full book, and recent issues will have up-to-date news and ideas; also, the book reviews and the bibliographies that are attached to most articles will give you ideas for further reading.

Reading is also a necessary accompaniment to formal study, and hopefully continues after it. It may be, for some, a substitute for courses and conferences -but the converse is not true: courses and conferences are no substitute for reading.

University study

If you have the opportunity, it is of course very worthwhile taking further courses of study. This usually means a degree: an academic course at a university in foreign language teaching or one of the associated subjects: pure or applied linguistics, the various branches of education, psychology or sociology. The attraction of such studies is not only the satisfaction of the learning itself and its contribution to your professional expertise, but also the usually internationally recognized qualification, with its associated prestige and aid to promotion.

An academic course provides a valuable opportunity to take a step back from the demands of everyday practice, reflect quietly on what you do, and rethink your own principles and practice in the light of other people's theories and research. But such rethinking works both ways: you will find that you need to approach academic theories and research cautiously and critically, checking the ideas you are learning against your own experience and if possible applying and testing them in practice.

You may, however, find that you wish to abandon 'practical' considerations, and engage in reading, research and theorizing mainly for the sake of the sheer intellectual satisfaction of it. This is, of course, a legitimate and worthwhile pursuit, but it needs to be distinguished from the 'here-and-now' orientation ofhe professional. If you find research- and theory-oriented learning attractive, you may wish eventually to leave teaching and move over to academic work full-time!

Conferences and in-service courses

More exciting in many ways than formal courses are the conferences that are being organized with increasing frequency for foreign language (particularly English) teachers in many countries. These, though sometimes expensive to attend, offer a rich selection of lectures, workshops, seminars, panel discuss and so on from which you may be able to update yourself on the latest research and controversies, learn new techniques and methods, become acquainted with the latest published materials in your field and meet other professionals.

The strength of conferences - the sheer wealth and variety of sessions and materials available to participants - is also, however, their weakness. Usually the schedule is based on a number of parallel sessions held at any one time, so you can attend only a small proportion of them; and they vary widely in level and effectiveness as well as in topic and orientation. What you select from the 'menu' of sessions may or may not satisfy you; it is unlikely that you will find everything worthwhile; in fact, if each day you feel that one or two of the ever: you attended were of real value to you, you are doing well!

Conferences cannot supply the systematic coverage of topics that is providec by formal courses, but among the large number of semi-random encounters at conferences you may well come across new publications or ideas which, immediately or eventually, 'spark off inspirations or innovations of your own. Their other major advantage, of course, is the opportunities they provide for meeting practitioners from other places, exchanging ideas and learning about each other's problems and solutions. Arguably at least as much interesting learning takes place between sessions as during them!

Short in-service courses are in a sense 'mini-conferences', also offering useful learning and contact with other teachers. They can very often be more relevant to your own needs, as they are organized locally - in your country, district or even institution.

It normally focuses on four areas:

1. sensitivity to problems of language use for learners;

2. sensitivity to how learners learn, the skills they need, the strategies they employ and the problems they have;

3. classroom management skills;

4. teaching techniques.

Depending on the overall aims of a particular course and the stage that TP has reached, its objectives would normally be one or more of the following:

• to allow you to simulate or approach the real teaching situation under sympathetic supervision;

• to provide you with an opportunity to try out techniques;

• to provide an arena for assessment;

• to provide you with an opportunity to have your teaching evaluated and constructively criticized;

• to provide an opportunity for you to get used to being observed (as observation often forms part of teacher appraisal in many teaching institutions);

• to encourage development of criteria for self-evaluation and self-awareness;

• to create a situation of gradually increased freedom so that you become increasingly more independent - able to make decisions about what you teach and how you teach;

• to help you develop your own teaching style;

• to provide you with exposure to real learners, their learning problems and the factors which influence their learning;

• to expose you to students at a range of levels and to develop an understanding of the differences of approach required;

• to develop your sense of responsibility for your students.

Of course TP should also provide genuine learning for the students involved.

Supervisors or tutors will probably give a lot of support and help initially, both with what to teach and with techniques and materials to use. This detailed guidance is often gradually withdrawn as trainees' ability increases in identifying the students' language needs and in preparing activities and materials to satisfy them.

The aim of a lesson should initially be identified for you. Some supervisors like to give out beforehand a timetable or a syllabus of what you are to teach and how your lessons fit in with the students' timetable and that of other teachers or trainees. Or you and your supervisor may discuss and decide the timetable together - especially if you are the class's main teacher. The syllabus should ideally reflect both your needs and the students' needs.

In some ways this is so and most courses ensure that a wide range of teaching skills are worked at. But the most effective way of meeting those needs is by making TP reflect the real situation as closely as possible: this can only mean basing it, as far as possible, on what the students need to learn.

In many of the following chapters there are references to a number of tasks. They don't form a complete programme and no doubt you and your supervisor will be able to think of others. Some are intended simply to provoke discussion, others are of the 'get up and do it' type and involve peer teaching - where one trainee teaches and the other trainees act as students

TP is a time for experiment. It is one of the few opportunities you may ever have for trying out a new idea and having one or more critical but supportive observers. When anything is tried out for the first time you are likely to make mistakes. Sometimes, more can be learned from the lessons that don't go so well than from the great successes.

How will I know if I am making progress?

Through self-awareness

Sensitivity won't really come until you have had experience and learned to relax with your students. As the basic classroom skills are mastered and different parts of a lesson are handled more confidently you should be able to stand back mentally and observe the class as it is going on, see what the students are doing well, what they are having problems with as well as how they are interacting as a group. You will gradually become more self-aware - of your particular strengths, and of areas where improvement is needed.

Feedback from observers

Other trainees (if they are available) and, of course, supervisors can help develop your awareness. They can sit back and observe what is going on in a more objective way, unhindered by the nerves and anxieties of the teacher.

Feedback from students

To help yourself it is worth getting to know the students well, both inside and outside the classroom, not only to find out about their interests but also to give them the opportunity of expressing what they feel their problems are with the language. They can provide useful feedback on your classes, both what they found useful and what they didn't.

What should be the end result of TP?

After TP you should:

• be more aware of the language you are teaching;

• be more aware of the factors that aid and impede learning in the classroom;

• be in control of basic classroom management skills;

• be able to plan a series of lessons, perhaps based around published materials (such as a coursebook), which are relevant to what the students need to learn;

• be able to present, practise and revise language;

• be able to use activities and materials that develop language skills;

• be able to help students develop their awareness of how they learn and what learning strategies suit them;

• be able to think critically and creatively about your own lessons.