2. Process

Your job during the activity is to go from group to group, monitor, and either contribute or keep out of the way - whichever is likely to be more helpful. If you do decide to intervene, your contribution may take the form of:

- providing general approval and support;

- helping students who are having difficulty;

- keeping the students using the target language (in many cases your mere presence will ensure this!);

- tactfully regulating participation in a discussion where you find some students are over-dominant and others silent.

3. Ending

If you have set a time limit, then this will help you draw the activity to a close at a certain point. In principle, try to finish the activity while the students are still enjoying it and interested, or only just beginning to flag.

4. Feedback

A feedback session usually takes place in the context of full-class interaction after the end of the group work. Feedback on the task may take many forms: giving the right solution, if there is one; listening to and evaluating suggestions; pooling ideas on the board; displaying materials the groups have produced; and so on. Your main objective here is to express appreciation of the effort that has been invested and its results. Feedback on language may be integrated into this discussion of the task, or provide the focus of a separate class session later.

The concept of individualization in language learning

The concept of 'individualization' in education is sometimes identified with the provision of a self-access centre, or even a full self-access learning programme. Materials of various kinds are made available, and the learners choose which to work on: the organization of these choices may be in the hands of either teacher or learner, and learners may be working on their own or in groups or pairs.

However, define the term more modestly, as a situation where learners are given a measure of freedom to choose how and what they learn at any particular time (implying less direct teacher supervision and more learner autonomy and responsibility for learning), and there is some attempt to adapt or select tasks and materials to suit the individual. The opposite is 'lockstep' learning, where everyone in the class, in principle, is expected to do the same thing at the same time in the same way.

Individualized learning thus defined does not necessarily imply a programme based entirely on self-instruction, nor the existence of self-access centres (which are expensive to equip and maintain and therefore not available to most foreign-language learners). It does imply a serious attempt to provide for differing learner needs within a class and to place a higher proportion of responsibility for learning on the shoulders of the learners themselves. For most of us, it is perhaps more useful to devote thought to how we can achieve at least some degree of this kind of individualization within a conventional classroom than it is to give up on the attempt because we do not have the time or resources to organize full self-access facilities.

Procedures that allow for individual choice

This choice may be in:

1. Speed: how fast or slowly each individual may work (everyone being engaged in the same basic task);

2. Level: tasks that are basically aimed at the same teaching point may be presented in easier or more difficult versions, so that the learner can choose the one that suits his or her level;

3. Topic: the learner may be able to select tasks that - while all are based on the same language skill or teaching point - vary in the subject or topic of the text as well as in level;

4. Language skill or teaching point: each learner may choose to work on a quite different aspect of language: listening, for example, or grammar, or reading literature.

Another way learning procedures can vary is in the amount of work demanded of the teacher in preparation.

CLASSROOM PROCEDURES

1. Readers. Students choose individual simplified readers, of varied level and topic, from a school library, and read quietly in class.

2. Response to listening. The teacher plays a recorded text on a topical issue, and asks the class to note down points they understood.

3. Workcards. A pile of workcards prepared by the teacher is put in the centre of the class, all practising the material the class has recently learned, but each different. Each student chooses one, completes it and then takes another.

4. Textbook questions in class. The class has been given a set of questions from the textbook to answer in writing; each student does them on his or her own.

5. Worksheets. The teacher distributes worksheets which all practise the same grammar point, but containing various sections with different kinds of practice tasks and topics. The students choose which sections they want to do, and do as much as they can in the time allotted.

6. Textbook exercises for homework. The teacher gives three sets of comprehension questions from the textbook, of varying difficulty, on a passage that has been read in class; each student is asked to select and do one set.

7. Varied tasks. The teacher has prepared a number of workcards based on different language skills and content. There is a cassette recorder in one corner with headsets for listening tasks, and another corner available for quiet talk. Students select, work on and exchange cards freely.

Сategorizing individualized procedures

Learner choice in:
speed level topic language point
speed level topic
speed level
speed
	Little or no teacher preparation	Some teacher preparation	A heavy load of teacher preparation

The selection of appropriate activation techniques

The 'Initiation-Response-Feedback' ('IRF') pattern described at the beginning of this module tends to be used most of the time in most classrooms, even if it is not in fact the most effective way of achieving the teaching objective at the time. This unit aims to raise awareness of the suitability of different patterns for different teaching objectives, and suggests some general considerations.

Comment

1. 'IRF' is a convenient and easily administered activation technique that quickly provides the teacher with some indication of what some of the class knows. Its results do not, however, provide a very representative sample of what most of the class know or do not know, since only a minority have a chance to express themselves, and these are usually the more advanced and confident. Individual work provides far more accurate and comprehensive feedback.

2. If the class is in the early stages of learning something, then the 'IRF' pattern is useful, since it allows the teacher to monitor immediately, and learners may also learn from each other's responses. Later, however, when they know the material better and simply need to consolidate it through rehearsal they are probably better served by individual, group or pair work which allows active participation of more students simultaneously.

3. Teacher speech or reading aloud is useful for presenting new language or texts; also for recycling material which the class has previously encountered through their own reading. The extra exposure contributes to the consolidation of learning, particularly if the teacher speaks expressively or dramatically.

4. Collaboration is invaluable when learners are producing considered, careful written language, and want to avoid mistakes or have them corrected as quickly as possible, but when you yourself cannot possibly monitor all of them at the same time. In collaboration, learners contribute to each other's writing and are made more aware of their own; they can in fact do a substantial proportion of the monitoring on their own.

TEACHER OBJECTIVES AND LEARNER ACTIVATION

a) Comprehension check

'We've just finished reading a story. I want to make sure the class has understood it, using the comprehension questions in the book.'

b) Familiarization with text

'We've just finished reading a story. I'm fairly sure they've understood the basic plot, but I want them to get really familiar with the text through reading, as they're going to have to pass an exam on it.'

c) Oral fluency

'I have a small [fifteen] class of business people, who need more practice in talking. I want them to do a discussion task where they have to decide which qualities are most important for a manager.'

d) Grammar check

'We've been working on the distinction between two similar verb tenses. I want to find out how far they've grasped it, using an exercise in the book where they have to allot the right tense to the right context.'

e) Writing

'They need to improve their writing. I want to ask them to write for a few minutes in class, but am worried they might just make a lot of mistakes and hot learn anything.'

f) Grammar practice

They need to practise forming and asking questions. I thought of using an interview situation; they might interview me or each other.'

g) New vocabulary

'I want to introduce some new vocabulary in preparation for a text we're going to read.'

Основная литература: 11, 12, 16, 17, 21, 24, 27, 36, 38, 42, 43, 48

Дополнительная литература: 51, 52, 54, 59,60,66, 68, 69, 80.

Тема лекции №8

Learner motivation and interest

8.1 Motivation: some background thinking

8.2 The teacher’s responsibility

8.3 Extrinsic/Intrinsic motivation

The abstract term 'motivation' on its own is rather difficult to define. It is easier and more useful to think in terms of the 'motivated' learner: one who is willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress. Learner motivation makes teaching and learning immeasurably easier and more pleasant, as well as more productive: hence the importance of the topic for teachers. This first unit reviews, necessarily brieny, various interesting theoretical aspects of the topic of learner motivation that have been studied and discussed in the literature.

The importance of motivation

Various studies have found that motivation is very strongly related to achievement in language learning (e.g. Gardner and Lambert, 1972; Gardner, 1980). The question then needs to be asked: which is the cause and which the result? In other words, does success in language learning breed its own motivation (Burstall etal, 1974; Khan, 1991) or does previous motivation leadto success? Or both? Another question for which there is no conclusive research-based evidence is whether motivation is more, or less, important than a natural aptitude for learning (languages), though at least one well-known study (Naiman et al., 1978) tends towards the claim that motivation is ultimately more important (see below).

The significant message of research in this area for teachers is the sheer importance of the factor of learner motivation in successful language learning. Other questions raised in the above paragraph are arguably academic. The uncertainty as to which comes first, motivation or success, does not entail any particular problems for teaching: it simply means that among other things we do to increase our students' motivation, strategies to increase the likelihood of success in learning activities should have high priority. And as to the question whether motivation is more or less important than language aptitude: motivation is not measurable, and even language aptitude is apparently much more difficult to assess than was once thought, so that the question is probably unanswerable. In any case, perhaps it was not a very helpful one in the first place: our job is to do all we can to encourage the development of ability and enhance motivation, on the understanding that each will contribute to the other.

Characteristics of motivated learners

The authors of a classic study of successful language learning came to the conclusion that the most successful learners are not necessarily those to whom a language comes very easily; they are those who display certain typical characteristics, most of them clearly associated with motivation. Some of these are:

1. Positive task orientation. The learner is willing to tackle tasks and challenges, and has confidence in his or her success.

2. Ego-involvement. The learner finds it important to succeed in learning in order to maintain and promote his or her own (positive) self-image.

3. Need for achievement. The learner has a need to achieve, to overcome difficulties and succeed in what he or she sets out to do.

4. High aspirations. The learner is ambitious, goes for demanding challenges, high proficiency, top grades.

5. Goal orientation. The learner is very aware of the goals of learning, or of specific learning activities, and directs his or her efforts towards achieving them.

6. Perseverance. The learner consistently invests a high level of effort in learning, and is not discouraged by setbacks or apparent lack of progress.

7. Tolerance of ambiguity. The learner is not disturbed or frustrated by situations involving a temporary lack of understanding or confusion; he or she can live with these patiently, in the confidence that understanding will come later.

Various other personality traits have been studied, such as field-dependence or independence, empathy, introversion or extraversion, but results have been less conclusive.

Different kinds of motivation

A distinction has been made in the literature between 'integrative' and 'instrumental' motivation: the desire to identify with and integrate into the target-language culture, contrasted with the wish to learn the language for purposes of study or career promotion. Gardner and Lambert (1972) introduced these concepts and claimed that integrative motivation was more influential among learners of French in Canada; but research since has cast doubt on the application of this claim to foreign language learners in general. In any case, at least one other study (Burstall et al., 1974) has indicated that it may be impossible in practice to distinguish between the two.

Another distinction, perhaps more useful for teachers, is that between 'intrinsic' motivation (the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake) and 'extrinsic' (motivation that is derived from external incentives). Both of these have an important part to play in classroom motivation, and both are at least partially accessible to teacher influence. Intrinsic motivation is in its turn associated with what has been termed 'cognitive drive' - the urge to learn for its own sake, which is very typical of young children and tends to deteriorate with age.

A third distinction which has been made is that between 'global', 'situational' and 'task' motivation: the first is the overall orientation of the learner towards the learning of the foreign language; the second has to do with the context of learning (classroom, total environment); and the third with the way the learner approaches the specific task in hand. As regards situation: for our purposes, we assume it is the classroom, but the other two may vary and be influenced by teacher action. Global motivation may seem mainly determined by previous education and a multitude of social factors, but it is also affected by the teacher's own attitudes conveyed either unconsciously or through explicit information and persuasion. And the third is probably where most of our effort is invested in practice: in making the task in hand as attractive as possible, and in encouraging our students to engage in it, invest effort and succeed.

The teacher's responsibility

In an article written some years ago, Girard (1977) emphasized that it is an important part of the teacher's job to motivate learners. In more recent 'learner-centred' approaches to language teaching, however, the teacher's function is seen mainly as a provider of materials and conditions for learning, while the learner takes responsibility for his or her own motivation and performance.

Many sources of extrinsic motivation are inaccessible to the influence of the teacher: for example, the desire of students to please some other authority figure such as parents, their wish to succeed in an external exam, or peer-group influences. However, other sources are certainly affected by teacher action. Here are some of them.

Success and its rewards

This is perhaps the single most important feature in raising extrinsic motivation. Learners who have succeeded in past tasks will be more willing to engage with the next one, more confident in their chances of succeeding, and more likely to persevere in their efforts.

It is important to note that 'success' in this context is not necessarily the same as 'getting the answers right' - though sometimes it may be. Further criteria ma; be the sheer amount of language produced or understood, the investment of effort and care, the degree of progress since a previous performance. All these need to be recognized by the teacher as 'successes' for which the learner can and should take credit.

The teacher's most important function here is simply to make sure that learners are aware of their own success: the message can be conveyed by a nod, a tick, even significant lack of response. But a sense of pride and satisfaction may of course be enhanced by explicit praise or approval, or by its expression in quantitative grades — particularly for young, inexperienced or unconfident learners. The only potential problem with these explicit markers of success is the danger that if over-used learners may become dependent on them: they may lose confidence in their ability to recognize success on their own, and see lack of teacher approval as casting doubt on it, or even as disapproval.

The key, then, is the learners' own awareness of successful performance, however this is attained: the more confident they become and the more able to recognize such success on their own, the less they will need explicit support from someone else.

Failure and its penalties

Failure, too, is not just a matter of wrong answers; learners should be aware that they are failing if they have done significantly less than they could have, if they are making unsatisfactory progress, or not taking care.

Failure in any sense is generally regarded as something to be avoided, just as success is something to be sought. But this should not be taken too far. For one thing, success loses its sweetness if it is too easily attained and if there is no real possibility or experience of failure. For another, it is inevitable that there will be occasional failures in any normal learning experience, and they are nothing to be ashamed of; good learners recognize this, take setbacks in their stride, and look for ways to exploit them in order to succeed next time.

As with success, it is in principle part of the teacher's job to make learners aware of when they are failing. Having said this, however, there is certainly a danger that constant awareness of shortcomings may lower learners' motivation and demoralize them, particularly those whose self-image and confidence are shaky to start with. There may be cases where you may prefer to ignore or play down a failure; and success can be made more likely by judicious selection of tasks, and by setting the (minimum) standard of success at a clearly achievable level.

Authoritative demands

Learners are often motivated by teacher pressure: they may be willing to invest effort in tasks simply because you have told them to, recognizing your authority and right to make this demand, and trusting your judgement. Younger learners on the whole need the exercise of such authority more, adults less: but even adults prefer to be faced with a clear demand such as 'I want you to do this assignment by Friday' than a low-key request like: 'Do what you can, and give it to me whenever you finish.'

Authoritative demands can be, of course, over-used or misused: if learners only do things because they are obeying commands, without any awareness of objectives and results or involvement in decisions, they are unlikely to develop personal responsibility for their own learning or long-term motivation to continue. On the other hand an over-emphasis on learner freedom and autonomy and corresponding lack of authoritative demand by the teacher can lead to noticeable lowering of effort and achievement, and often, paradoxically, to learner dissatisfaction. Teachers have, surely, a duty to use their authority to 'push' their students - particularly the younger ones - beyond what they might be willing to do on their own, towards what Vygotsky (1962: Ch.6) called their 'zone of proximal development' - the next stage in achievement - which can only be attained by a learner with the support and help of a teacher.

Tests

The motivating power of tests appears clear: learners who know they are going to be tested on specific material next week will normally be more motivated to study it carefully than if they had simply been told to learn it. Again, this is a useful incentive, provided there is not too much stress attached, and provided it is not used too often. See Module 3: Tests, Unit Two for a discussion of this and related points.

Competition

Learners will often be motivated to give of their best not for the sake of the learning itself but in order to beat their opponents in a competition. Individual competition can be stressful for people who find losing humiliating, or are not very good at the language and therefore likely consistently to lose in contests based on (linguistic) knowledge; and if over­used, it eventually affects negatively learners' willingness to cooperate and help each other. If, however, the competition is taken not too seriously, and if scores are at least partly a result of chance, so that anyone might win, positive motivational aspects are enhanced and stress lowered. Group contests tend on the whole to get better results than individual ones, in my experience: they are more enjoyable, less tense and equally motivating.