Part 1 Introduction and Background to Intercultural Communication

con-

way, if the first-known qualities are negative, we assess the unknown with more negative features. If Jim is described as dumb and clumsy, what ad­ditional personality adjectives might be included? Probably something negative, according to the theory. In other words, a positive or negative "halo effect" extends from described qualities to unknown qualities. What is unknown is consistent with the known.

3. Incomplete information. This also accounts for poor perception and can re­ sult in negative attitudes. Personal circumstances may lead to inadequate or poor sampling from which to draw accurate data about a person or a group. This leads to hasty or limited generalization.

4. Following cultural attitudes. By custom and adherence to cultural atti­ tudes, one can slide into negative attitudes toward out-groups simply by following cultural caricatures, stereotypes, and attitudes. One university student once explained, "My hometown and school never had any Hispan- ics, so I never realized my prejudice and feelings of people 'not like me.' When Armando and I first met, my exclusive attitudes erupted into an eth­ nic dislike and blocked seeing what a caring, sensitive man he really is." Cultures, schools, and families teach us in silent, yet numerous ways, how to feel about others "not like me." It is all too easy to lift the stereotypes others have invented and unconsciously apply this "in-group" judgment without question.

Cultures inherently contain communication systems. Many years ago, Smith (1966) observed that "communication and culture are inseparable," a point echoed in more recent research (Hecht, Andersen, and Ribeau 1989). One im­plication of this insight is that cultures generate symbols, rituals, customs, and formats. To use a simple example, every culture has rules for achievement and attainment. In dominant U.S. culture, the symbols of these "rites of passage" include degrees, promotions, material objects, technology, and symbols of ma­terial wealth. A plaque of recognition, a certificate of merit, or a gold watch at retirement symbolize dominant U.S. culture's communication system. Nation­als in Botswana use physical symbols also, but the symbols represent recogni­tion in tribal terms and are symbolic of pride in the primary group and not just individual attainment. In this way, the communication systems we employ are rooted in the culture where they are used. Cultural misunderstanding occurs when we fail to match the appropriate symbols and general communication system to the culture. Just witness the awkwardness of an expatriate who at­tends a gathering in a host culture, but fails to wear the appropriate clothes.

A second implication of this axiom is not only should we employ the correct symbols with a culture's communication system, but also use the appropriate per­sonal communication style. Communication styles refer to mannerisms, phrases, rituals, and communication customs appropriate for various situations in a culture. For instance, in Saudia Arabia interpersonal communication style upon meeting one's host is marked sometimes by flowery language, numerous compliments, and profuse thanks. Rarely does one publicly criticize fellow workers in a culture where such messages would appear disloyal and disrespectful (Harris and Moran 1991).

Communication Is Central to Culture