Basic principles of the american courts

American courts present a complex and often confusing variety of names, functions and types. However, there are three basic principles underlying their organization: jurisdiction, dual¹ court system, and distinction between trial and appellate courts.

Court system is largely determined by the legal limitations on the types of cases a court may hear and decide. The power of the court to try a certain type of cases is called the court’s jurisdiction. Constitutions, statutes and court decisions define a court’s jurisdiction. The authorization² for the federal court system is found in Article III of the US Constitution. State and municipal courts receive their power from their state constitutions and state statutes. Jurisdiction contains three aspects: territorial, personal, and subject matter³. Courts are authorized to decide disputes arising within specified political boundaries (a city, a county⁴, a group of counties).

America has a dual court system: two independent but interrelated⁵ judicial schemes, one at the national level and the other at the state. The dual court system reflects the federal system of government in the United States, which divides powers between the national government and the state governments.

Another key element of court structure is the division between trial and appellate courts. The principal difference between a trial and an appeal is that a trial focuses on facts, whereas an appeal focuses on correctly interpreting the law. Practically all cases, whether civil or criminal, begin in a trial court. Because only trial courts hear disputes over facts, it is only in trial court that witnesses appear¹. The decision of a judge (or jury) about a factual dispute normally cannot be appealed. The losing party in the trial court generally has the right to request² an appellate court to review the case. In criminal cases, however, the constitutional protection against double jeopardy³ does not allow the prosecutor to appeal if the judge or jury has returned a verdict of not guilty.

Module 2

Before you read the text decide if the statements below are true or false. Don’t look in the text for answers.

1. In the United States, people break state laws more often than federal laws.

2. Criminal procedures are different for children and adult offenders.

3. If a child commits a serious offence, he or she may be sent to a prison for adult criminals.

4. The US constitution gives every defendant a right to choose between a jury trial or a bench trial⁴.

5. In American courts, sentences are always given by judges, not by juries.

6. In the United States, people may be sentenced to death in all states.

Now read the text quickly to check your answers in 1.

Depending on the crimes people commit, they may break a federal law, a state law, or both. However, the great majority of crimes committed in the United States are state crimes. Prosecutions of serious crimes (felonies) are more complicated than prosecutions of less serious offenses (misdemeanors). Criminal laws and procedures vary from state to state, but in general the following actions take place when children and adults break the law.

What Happens to Children

When minors, people under the age of 18, break the law, they usually appear in juvenile court. Since a minor will rarely have a jury trial, the judge hears the evidence and decides whether or not there is enough evidence to prove that the child has broken the law. In most cases, the child admits to the crime and depending on the situation, the judge may put the child on probation, place the child in a foster home, or in serious cases, the child may be sent to a juvenile institution. If the child denies the charge, however, an adjudicatory hearing, much like a criminal trial, is held. At this hearing, the child is represented by a lawyer. If the judge determines that there is enough evidence, a second hearing is arranged to order a sentence.

What Happens to Adults

When an adult commits a serious crime and is arrested by police, sometimes there will be a trial. In the federal system and in some states, a grand jury decides whether or not there is enough evidence for a trial. If there is enough evidence, the person is indicted. If there is not enough evidence the charges are dropped. In states that don't use grand juries, an information will be issued by the prosecutor. An information is a formal written accusation by the prosecutor. Once the indictment or information has been filed, the defendant is arraigned.

Arraignment is the first stage of the trial process, at which the indictment or information is read in open court and the defendant must enter the plea. When a defendant pleads guilty, they admit that they in fact committed the offense. Of course, such a plea means that no trial will take place. The judge must make sure that the defendant understands the charges and the possible penalty upon conviction. If the judge accepts the plea of guilty, a date of sentencing is set. If the defendant pleads not guilty, the case goes to trial.

Sometimes plea bargaining occurs. The defense attorney and the prosecutor try to settle a case with the court's approval. In a plea bargain, the defendant pleads guilty to a lesser offense or the prosecutor drops some of the charges, or agrees to ask for a lighter sentence from the judge.

If there is a trial, the Constitution guarantees every defendant certain rights. With serious crimes, there is the right to be tried before a jury; the defendant can also waive this right and then the judge returns the verdict. The basic rules of jury trials are the following: 1) the defendant is presumed innocent, 2) the prosecutor must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, 3) the defendant has the right not to take the stand, and 4) evidence obtained through unconstitutional police procedures is excluded.

If the defendant is found not guilty, he is acquitted. If he is found guilty, he is convicted and then sentenced. Usually the trial judge hands out the sentence, but sometimes the jury does. The sentence may be a fine, incarceration, probation, or, in some states, the death penalty.

Read the text again using the Legal Vocabulary and answer the questions.

1. What sort of offenders do juvenile courts deal with?

2. Why are jury trials rarely held in juvenile courts?

3. How are minors usually punished?

4. What decision does the grand jury make?

5. Who brings charges against the defendant in the states which don’t use grand juries?

6. What happens at the arraignment?

7. What must the judge do before they accept a plea of guilty?

8. What is a plea bargain?

9. What basic rights are guaranteed to criminal defendants?

10. What are the general types of punishment used in the United States?

Put these steps in the criminal justice process in the correct order.

• trial

• grand jury hearing

• arrest

• sentencing

• arraignment

• jury verdict

Read and translate the sentences below that give additional information about the proceedings outlined in the text. Where do you think each sentence could fit in the text?

1. Sentencing will actually occur at a separate hearing several weeks after the verdict has been returned.

2. The grand jury hearing is usually closed to public, grand jurors hear only the witnesses summoned by the prosecutor, and defendants are seldom present at a grand jury hearing.

3. A recent survey revealed that 67% of felony defendants plead guilty.

4. After sentencing, defendants may appeal their convictions (or in a few states, sentences) to a higher court.

5. Pleas of not guilty are more common among defendants charged with serious violent crimes such as murder or rape than among those charged with less serious property or drug offenses.

Study the Legal Vocabulary and try to remember the words and phrases.

LEGAL VOCABULARY
acquit	оправдать (признать невиновным)
adjudicatory hearing	слушание на предмет вынесения судебного решения
admit (to)	признавать (вину), сознаваться (в чем-л.)
appear in court/before the court	представать перед судом
arraign arraignment	предъявлять обвинение, привлекать к суду формальное предъявление обвинения
charge (n) bring/make/file a charge deny a charge drop a charge charge smb with a crime(v) syn. accuse smb of a crime	обвинение; пункт обвинения выдвигать обвинение отрицать обвинение отказаться от обвинения обвинять кого-л. в преступлении
̒convict (n) Syn. prisoner con̒vict (v) of a crime conviction	осужденный; заключенный заключённый; подсудимый, обвиняемый осудить за совершение преступления осуждение (признание виновным), обвинительный приговор, судимость
death penalty syn. capital punishment	смертная казнь
exclude evidence	не принимать в качестве доказательства
felony	тяжкое уголовное преступление (фелония)
foster home	приёмная семья; семейный приют
grand jury	большое (следственное) жюри (коллегия из 12-23 присяжных, решающая вопрос о предании обвиняемого суду присяжных)
incarceration	лишение свободы, заключение в тюрьму
indict	предъявлять официальное обвинение
indictment	обвинительный акт
information file/issue an information	заявление об обвинении подавать заявление об обвинении
innocent	невиновный
juvenile court	суд по делам несовершеннолетних
juvenile institution	учреждение для несовершеннолетних преступников
minor (n)	несовершеннолетний
misdemeanor	мелкое уголовное преступление (мисдиминор)
plea	заявление подсудимого (о признании или непризнании себя виновным)
plea bargain plea bargaining	сделка (соглашение) о признании вины (в наименее тяжком из вменяемых обвинением преступлений) переговоры о заключении сделки о признании вины
presume	предполагать, допускать, считать
probation put on probation	пробация (вид условного осуждения, при котором осуждённый остаётся на свободе, но находится под надзором сотрудника службы пробации) осудить условно
prosecution	1) cудебное/уголовное преследование 2) обвинение (как сторона в угол. процессе)
reasonable doubt beyond a reasonable doubt	разумное, обоснованное сомнение при отсутствии разумных оснований для сомнения
return a verdict	выносить вердикт
take the stand	давать показания в суде
waive	отказываться (от права, требования)

Complete the definitions below with appropriate words from the Legal Vocabulary.

11. ………… is a system of dealing with offenders by placing them under the supervision of a probation officer.

12. ………… is an agreement between the prosecution and defence, sometimes including the judge, in which the accused agrees to plead guilty to a lesser charge in return for more serious charges being dropped.

13. …………. is a formal written charge of a crime presented to the court by a grand jury.

14. ……….… is the answer made by a defendant to the charge.

15. …………. is a serious crime, such as murder or robbery.

16. ………….. is a group of between 12 and 23 persons summoned to inquire into accusations of crime and establish whether the evidence is sufficient to file an indictment.

17. ………….. is a person below the age of full criminal responsibility.

18. ………….. is person found guilty of an offence, especially one who is sentenced to imprisonment.

Match the verbs with the nouns. Make up 5 sentences with any of the phrases.

	to acquit		a charge
	to appear		a verdict
	to bring		evidence
	to convict of		homicide
	to exclude		in court
	to file		a defendant
	to waive		death penalty
	to put on		an information
	to return		probation
	to sentence to		a jury trial

Complete the sentences with appropriate words from the box. You don’t need all the words!

convict (v) exclude (v) presume (v) prove (v) waive (v) arraignment attorneys information misdemeanor charges arrest reasonable doubt presumption of innocence plea bargaining

1. Nineteen states use the grand jury and indictment to initiate prosecutions for all felonies, while others use the ________.

2. To _________ means ‘to take as proved until contrary evidence is produced’.

3. Of the crimes reported to the police, the police are able to make a(n) _______ only one out of five times.

4. One of the most fundamental protections recognized in the American criminal justice process is the _______ . The state has the burden of proving¹ defendants guilty of alleged crimes; defendants do not have to _______ themselves innocent.

5. There are several factors defendants and defense _____ take into account² in deciding whether to demand³ a jury trial or _____ it.

6. During the preliminary hearing⁴, the prosecution doesn’t have to prove the defendant guilty beyond a _______, as would be required during the trial.

7. _______ is the first time a felony defendant is asked to plead to the charge.

8. All distinctions between felony and ________ were abolished⁵ in England and Wales in 1967.

	Complete with the prepositions.
	with on (×2) by before under of (×3) in to

1. The boy admitted ___ stealing the apples. 2. They charge him ___ armed robbery. 3. If a person commits a misdemeanor, they may be put ___ probation. 4. A lay bench must consist ___ at least three magistrates. 5. In England and Wales, defendants ___ 18 years of age do not have a right to jury trial unless the case is homicide or other particularly serious offence. 6. ___ the Crown Court, the case is tried ___ a Recorder (part-time judge), Circuit Judge or a High Court judge, with a jury. 7. The status of the judge depends ___ the seriousness and complexity ___ the case. 8. An arrested person must be brought ___ a magistrate within 48 hours. 9. The prisoner was convicted ___ robbery.

Complete with appropriate forms of the verbs in brackets.

1. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (transfer) the judicial functions from the Lord Chancellor to the Lord Chief Justice. 2. The US Supreme Court Justices (appoint) by the President. 3. From the Magistrates' Court, an appeal (can/take) to the Crown Court on matters of fact and law. 4. Criminal procedures (vary) depending on the seriousness of the crime and the jurisdiction. 5. The use of plea bargaining (receive) formal recognition by the US Supreme Court in 1970 in the case of Brady v. United States. 6. The first female Law Lord, Baroness Hale of Richmond, (appoint) in 2004. 7. For over 600 years English Justices of the Peace (hold) courts in order to punish law breakers, resolve local disputes and keep order in the community. 8. In American courts, the prosecutor (control) the order in which the facts of the case are (present) to the jury.

Translate into English.

1. Подсудимый, осужденный за совершение фелонии, может быть приговорен к лишению свободы сроком свыше одного года. 2. Если несовершеннолетний правонарушитель признается в преступлении, он может быть осужден условно или отправлен в учреждение для несовершеннолетних преступников. 3. Так как ребенок отрицал предъявленное обвинение, было проведено слушание на предмет вынесения судебного решения. 4. Большое жюри решило, что доказательств недостаточно для проведения судебного разбирательства, поэтому обвинения против подсудимого были сняты. 5. После того, как заявление об обвинении, поданное прокурором, было зачитано в открытом судебном заседании, подсудимый заявил о своей невиновности. 6. Адвокат посоветовал обвиняемому отказаться от суда присяжных. 7. Судья не должен принимать доказательства, полученные противоправным путем. 8. Один из трех подсудимых был оправдан, а двух других приговорили к крупным штрафам и шести месяцам условного осуждения.

Give definitions of the following terms: a) a minor, b) a juvenile institution, c) a grand jury, d) an information, e) an arraignment, f) probation, g) a plea bargain.

Speak about a) what happens to children who break the law; b) what happens to an adult felony offender.