МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ

ОДЕСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ ІМ. І.І. МЕЧНИКОВА

факультет романо-германської філології

кафедра іноземних мов природничих факультетів

МЕТОДИЧНА РОЗРОБКА

для роботи над автентичною літературою

за фахом „Психологія”

для студентів I курсу психологічного факультету

Одеса-2007

Методична розробка призначена для студентів І курсу психологічного факультету. Основою для розробки збірник текстів “The stories of medicine and psychology” (London, Ladybird book, 1992)

Головною метою розробки є збагачення словникового запасу, розвиток навичок читання та перекладу текстів за спеціальністю „Психологія”.

Укладач:

А.О. Кононенко – канд.психол. наук, доцент кафедри іноземних мов природничих факультетів

Рецензенти:

Н.М. Ануфрієва – канд. філол.наук, доцент

О.М. Кіріченко – канд.пед.наук, доцент

Відповідальний редактор:

Н.В. Петлюченко – канд.філол.наук, доцент

Друкується згідно з рішенням кафедри іноземних мов природничих факультетів Одеського національного університету ім. І.І. Мечникова

Протокол № 6 від 26.03.2007р.

© А.О. Кононенко, укладач, 2007

Unit 1

1. Read the story and translate it. Before history began

It has long been known that Man descended from apelike ancestors. The process of evolution spanned many hundreds of thousands of years. Gradually he came down from the trees, learned to walk on two feet, lost much of his physical strength and, instead, developed a bigger head and brain.

The earliest humans lived on the cold, wet ground which they shared with the many strange and dangerous animals that inhabited the Earth at that time. They hunted for their food, using as weapons the teeth and horns of the beasts they killed and the skins to cover their naked bodies. They lived in small family groups, had no recognized form of speech but communicated with each other by grunts, gestures and punches.

As the years went by our prehistoric ancestors made three important discoveries. They found that a sharpened piece of flint could be turned into a useful tool or weapon, and later they were able to fit a handle to it, making it easier to wield. The discovery of fire was a further advance. Man could then warm and dry himself as well as cook his food. Fire was a means of protection too, because it helped to keep wild animals away.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. Do you agree that Man descended from monkey?

2. Walk on two feet is the result of evolution, isn’t it?

3. What was the life of our ancestors?

4. How did they survive in such dangerous and terrible conditions?

5. How did they communicate with each other?

6. What were main discoveries?

7. Why they were so important?

8. How do you image the prehistoric man?

9. The discovery of fire was further advance, wasn’t it?

10. What helped to keep wild animals away?

4. Complete the following sentences.

1. Result of evolution was…

2. From our apelike ancestors we differ…

3. Humans hunted for their food, using …

4. As the tools and weapons they used…

5. The discovery of fire gave them…

6. The discovery of tools and weapons gave them…

7. Their clothes were…

8. They lived in…

9. The discovery of fire was…

10. Fire was a means of protection too, because…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Apelike ancestors, inhabitance, horns, grunts, gestures, punches, flint, advance.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. It has long been known that Man descended from apelike ancestors.

2. Gradually he came down from the trees.

3. The earliest humans lived on the cold, wet ground.

4. They lived in small family groups.

5. Our prehistoric ancestors made three important discoveries.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. They hunted for their food.

2. He lost much of his physical strength.

3. The process of evolution spanned many hundreds of thousands of years.

4. They had no recognized form of speech.

5. They communicated with each other by grunts, gestures and punches.

Unit II

1. Read the story and translate it. Medicine by instinct

Early man, like the apes before him and the animals all around, was subject to illness, injury and death. Life was uncomfortable, dangerous and hard, and the average span of life was probably little more than thirty years. If he developed a sore or wound his instinctive action was to suck or lick the affected place. He found that bleeding sometimes eased the pain of a wound. Stomach ache, after too big a feast, could be helped by massaging with the hands.

Implements normally employed as weapons could be used to cut off mutilated limbs. It was noticed that fire, when used to cauterize wounds, seemed to prevent them from becoming fatal - if the patient survived the shock!

The small family groups broadened into larger communities. Germs and viruses had more opportunity to spread and breed in human bodies. Disease increased, as it does today in closely-living, unhygienic communities.

Instinctive medical activities later developed into ceremonial rituals which became as important as healing itself. They were performed by the leader of the community or tribe whenever a person became ill.

2. Retell it contents in English.

2. Answer the following questions.

1. What was the prehistoric life?

2. How did the earliest humans treat each other?

3. What was the average span of life?

4. What kind of communities did they live?

5. What instinctive actions did they use for treatment?

6. What was the role of ceremonial rituals?

7. Who performed rituals?

8. Which of these instincts have been preserved for today?

9. What did have the more opportunity to spread?

10. What could be used to cauterize wounds?

IV. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Injury, span of life, sore, stomach ache, cauterize wounds, germs, disease, healing, treatment.

5. Complete the following sentences.

1. The earliest people lived in…

2. Germs and viruses had more opportunity to…

3. It was noticed that fire…

4. Life of earliest humans was…

5. It he developed a sore or a wound his instinctive action was…

6. Stomach ache could be helped…

7. Instinctive medical activities latter developed into …

8. They were performed by the leader of the community…

9. Implements normally employed as weapons could be…

10. Instinctive medical activities later developed into ceremonial rituals…

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Early man was subject to illness, injury and death.

2. He found that bleeding sometimes eased the pain.

3. Stomach ache could be helped by massage.

4. The small family groups broadened into larger community.

5. If he developed a sore or wound his instinctive action was to suck or lick the affected place.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. The average span of life was probably little more than thirty years.

2. They were performed by the leader of the community.

3. Disease increased.

4. Germs and viruses had opportunity to spread and breed in human bodies.

5. Implements normally employed as weapons.

Unit III

I. Read the story and translate it The medicine-man

Medicine progressed slowly and very painfully along two lines, the magical and the practical. Sometimes the two were linked together; sometimes they were carried on separately. The medicine-man came into being to cure the mental and physical ills of the people, or to kill off a patient thought to be incurable and a burden to the rest of the community.

Magic was practiced to drive out the evil spirits which were thought to cause disease. It took many forms, including the use of objects coated with special substances or carved with mystical designs to give them supposedly magical powers. Gifts and sacrifices might be offered to the appropriate spirit. Some rituals involved the amputation of a finger or other organ.

Excavations of Stone Age settlements have uncovered skulls into which a circular hole had been cut. This operation is known as trepanning and was probably carried out because it was thought that an evil spirit could escape, so relieving the patient of some mental disorder. Signs that the bone around the hole had, in some cases, begun to heal suggest that the sufferer had managed to survive the surgery. The circular pieces of bone removed from the skulls of unfortunate mental patients were possibly made into necklaces and worn as charms, or amulets, to ward off other evil spirits.

II. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions.

1. What do you think about magical medicine?

2. Do you trust more practical or magical medicine?

3. Why was magic practiced to drive evil spirits?

4. What forms did it takes?

5. Did these rituals involved amputation or transplantation?

6. What does “trepanning” mean?

7. What might be offered to the appropriate spirit?

8. What was the role of amulet?

9. What have been uncovered in settlements of Stone Age?

10. What did they remove from the skulls?

IV. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Magical medicine, evil spirit, substance, magical power, charms, amulets, mystical designs, rituals.

V. Complete the following sentences.

1. The evil spirit driven out because…

2. Gifts and sacrifices might be offered to…

3. The operation is known as trepanning and was…

4. Amulets ward off …

5. Some ritual involved the amputation of…

6. It took many forms, including…

7. Magic was practiced to drive out the evil spirits…

8. The medicine-man came into being to cure…

9. Gifts and sacrifices might be offered to…

10. Sometimes the two were linked together, sometimes…

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Medicine progressed slowly and very painfully along two lines.

2. The medicine-man came into being to cure the mental and physical ills of the people.

3. Gifts and sacrifices might be offered to the appropriate spirit.

4. This operation is known as trepanning.

5. Some rituals involved the amputation of a finger.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. The skulls of unfortunate mental patients were possibly made into necklaces.

2. It took many forms.

3. Excavations of Stone Age settlements have uncovered skulls.

4. The sufferer had managed to survive the surgery.

5. Magic was practiced to drive out the evil spirits.

Unit IV

1. Read the story and translate it. Early developments

As the centuries passed, man gained an elementary knowledge of anatomy from the animals he killed. He traveled great distances on foot and learned about nature. He found a method of counting, using his fingers and toes, invented the wheel and discovered how to grow plants and make pottery. He found that he could cure minor ailments by taking herbs, applying mud plasters, massaging and dieting. More troublesome diseases were treated by magic, bleeding or amputation. The medicine-man was the central figure of the tribe and as it gradually grew larger and larger his importance grew with it.

Between 7000 and 4000 BC, whole civilizations developed from the early tribes. Diseases multiplied in number and variety but only little progress was made in treating them.

Around 3000 BC knowledge gradually increased in the civilizations that were developing in Egypt and Mesopotamia, around the fertile valleys of the rivers Nile and Euphrates. Medicine became the job of specialist physicians who were paid for their work, but who were severely punished, sometimes by death, if the patient received an injury or died.

Medical treatments included fumigation (smoking out the patient through the back passage, mouth and nose), many herbal remedies and the application of animal urine, excreta and powdered bones!

2. Retell it contents in English.

2. Answer the following questions.

1. How did prehistoric people gained knowledge?

2. What methods of treatment did prehistoric people found?

3. What was the role of the medicine-man?

4. When did knowledge gradually increase?

5. Where did knowledge increase?

6. What did medical treatments include?

7. What innovations were made in that time in medicine?

8. How were more troublesome diseases treated?

9. What multiplied in number?

10. Whose job did medicine become?

2. Complete the following sentences.

1. The prehistoric man gained knowledge…

2. In counting he used…

3. Troublesome diseases were treated…

4. The role of early civilizations in medicine was…

5. Knowledge about medicine gradually increased…

6. Medicine became the job of specialist physicians…

7. Medical treatments included fumigation…

8. Between 7000 and 4000 B.C. whole civilizations…

9. The medicine-man was the central figure of the tribe…

10. Diseases multiplied in number and variety…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

To gain, knowledge, to cure, troublesome diseases, tribe, to punish, pay, fertile valleys, herbal remedies, ailments.

2. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Knowledge increased around the fertile valleys of the rivers Nile and Euphrates.

2. Medical treatments included fumigation.

3. Medicine became the job of specialist physician.

4. The doctors were pail for their job.

5. He could cure minor ailments.

2. Make up alternative questions

1. Around 3000 B.C. knowledge gradually increased in the civilizations that were developing in Egypt.

2. More troublesome diseases were treated by magic.

3. They treat troublesome diseases by magic.

4. Medicine became the job of specialist physicians.

5. They were well paid for their work.

UNIT V

1. Read the story and translate it. Greece

During the period around 600 B.C. the medical knowledge built up in Egypt gradually spread to Greece where, for the next few hundred years it was further developed.

Greek warriors knew how to remove an enemy's arrows from their bodies, stop the bleeding and apply healing substances. If a warrior-was lucky and did not develop some form of infection in the wound he would recover to fight another day. Infection was a subject about which nothing was known and many of the wounded died from this cause.

The most useful contributions to Greek medicine were made by the great philosophers. Names like Pythagoras - what schoolboy or girl has not heard of him - Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were all connected with the advance of science and medicine. Much of the work they carried out was not improved upon until as late as the 15th century. Some medical treatment was also carried on by priests in the temples but this was generally of the magical rather than the practical kind.

Most important of all the Greek achievements was the ability to diagnose illnesses by observation and deduction, to use powers of reasoning to explain the cause of a disease instead of relying on old superstitious ideas about evil spirits.

II. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions.

1. What did Greek warriors know?

2. What did Greek warriors know about medicine?

3. Which names of Greek philosophers do you know?

4. Who made the most useful contributions to Greek medicine?

5. What were their names?

6. Did they use powers of reasoning?

7. Who also carried some medical treatment?

8. What were the most important Greek achievements to World medicine?

9. What wasn’t improved upon until as late as 15th century?

10. Who died from the infection?

IV. True/untrue, correct and write down sentences.

1. Basic knowledge to Greek medicine came from the East.

2. There was a profession of a doctor in Greece.

3. They knew how to fight the infections.

4. The greatest doctors in Greece were philosophers.

5. Much of the work they carried out was not improved for thousands years.

6. Hospitals were in the temples.

7. Greek doctors can diagnose illnesses.

8. They believed that all diseases were caused by evil spirit.

9. Pythagoras – what schoolboy or girl has not heard of him.

10. Some medical treatment was also carried

V. What do you know about Greece? Write down interesting facts.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

6. Greek warriors knew how to stop the bleeding.

7. Hippocrates, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were all connected with the advance of science and medicine.

8. They knew nothing about infection.

9. Medical knowledge gradually spread to Greece.

10. In Greece knowledge was further developed.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. Greek warriors knew how to apply healing substances.

2. Many of the wounded died bean infection.

3. Some medical treatment was carried on by priests.

4. They could diagnose illness by observation and deduction.

5. The power of reasoning explaining the cause of disease.

Unit VI

1. Read the story and translate it. The Father of Medicine

Of all the Greek doctors, Hippocrates was the most notable. He is often called the Father of Medicine and some of his ideas are still important. Many students who qualify as doctors today take what is known as the Hippocratic Oath; a collection of promises, drawn up by Hippocrates, which forms the basis of our medical code of honour.

Hippocrates of Cos was born about 460 B.C. on the island of Cos off the coast of Asia Minor. He established medical schools in Athens and elsewhere and wrote several books as well as many medical case histories. He believed that disease was a natural process produced by natural causes and should be treated by exercise, massage, salt water baths, diet and suitable medicines. He observed diseases such as pneumonia, pleurisy,

Tuberculosis and malaria, and added to the medical language words like chronic, relapse, crisis and convalescence.

One of Hippocrates' theories was that the body consisted of four 'humours' or fluids; blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Too much of one fluid, he believed, would cause disease and it was the doctors' job to restore the balance. It was not until some two-thousand years later that the theory was proved incorrect.

II. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions. 1. Why was Hippocrates the most notable of all the Greek doctors? 2. What ideas of Hippocrates are still important? 3. What is the “Hippocratic Oath”? 4. When and where did Hippocrates born? 5. Do modern students take Hippocratic Oath? 6. What diseases did Hippocrates observe? 7. What words did he added to the medical language? 8. What do you know about “humours” theory? 9.What did he establish in Athens and elsewhere? 10. What would cause a disease according to Hippocrates?

IV. A) Make up your own sentences with following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Hippocratic Oath, chronic, relapse, crisis, convalescence, humour, yellow /black bile, medical school, to restore the balance, code of honour, to qualify.

5. True/untrue, correct and write down the sentences.

1. Hippocrates was from the doctor’s family.

2. He was born in Athens.

3. “Hippocratic Oath” is a collection of medicine laws.

4. One of his theories that body consists of four “humours”.

5. He is called the Father of Medicine.

6. He added to the medical language words like cancer, disease, stethoscope.

7. He was the Father of the theory of temperament.

8. He was also a psychologist.

9. He believed that too much of fluid would cause disease.

10. He observed diseases such as mental disorders, cancer, insomnia.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Hippocrates of Cos was form about 460 B.C.

2. Of all Greek doctors, Hippocrates was the most notable.

3. Too much of one fluid would cause disease.

4. The theory was proved incorrect.

5. He believed that disease was a natural process.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. He wrote several books as well as many medical case histories.

2. A disease should be treated by exercise, massage, salt water baths, diet and medicine.

3. He established medical schools in Athens.

4. Some of his ideas are still important.

5. He observed very many diseases and wrote several books.

Unit VII

1. Read the story and translate it. Roman times

Around 300 B.C. the Roman legions conquered the Mediterranean area, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Judea and Egypt. At first the practice of medicine was left to slaves and Greek doctors, but later the Romans became very efficient in the practice of medicine and surgery. Some surgical instruments found in the ruins of Pompeii were so efficiently designed as to closely resemble modern ones.

Perhaps the most important advances made by the Romans were in their public health systems. Inspectors supervised the sale of food in the markets and the first hospitals were opened. Great aqueducts brought water into the city of Rome and fine public baths were built so that people could keep themselves clean. There were flush lavatories, sewers, fountains and wells. However, very poor people still had to bathe in the River Tiber, and outside the cities, towns and villages were filthy with rubbish. Nevertheless, the Romans were the best-washed people in the whole ancient world.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. What areas were Roman legions conquered?

2. To whom the practice of medicine was left?

3. What did they have at homes?

4. What was the public health system?

5. Where did very poor people have to bathe?

6. Why Romans were the best washed people in the ancient world?

7. What was found in the ruins of Pompeii?

8. Why people could keep themselves clean?

9. Who made the most important advances in the ancient world?

10. Who supervised the sale of food in the markets?

4. Fill in the blanks bellow correct words. Write down the whole sentences.

   1. At first the practice of medicine was left to …

   2. Later the Romans became … in the practice of medicine and surgery.

   3. Inspectors … the sale of food in the markets.

   4. … brought water into the city.

   5. There were flush lavatories, … , fountains and wells.

   6. However, very poor people still had…

   7. Nevertheless, the Romans were the best washed…

   8. Perhaps the most important advances made by …

   9. Some surgical instruments found…

   10. Around 300 B.C., the Roman legions conquered…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Slaves, Mediterranean area, efficient, supervised, aqueduct, sewers, rubbish, ancient, public bath, flush lavatory, to resemble, modern.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Some surgical instruments were found in Rome.

2. There were flush lavatories.

3. Great aqueducts brought water to the city.

4. Tows and cities were fifty with rubbish.

5. The Romans were the best washed people.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. Very poor people had to bathe in River Tiber.

2. People could keep themselves clean.

3. Their public health system was one of the best.

4. They became very efficient in the practice of medicine and surgery.

5. The first hospitals were opened in Rome.

Unit VIII

I. Read the story and translate it. The Dark Ages

The Romans had nearly two hundred surgical instruments; they performed plastic surgery and developed a form of anesthetic to give some relief to patients undergoing operations. This consisted of a sponge soaked in special juices, placed in the patient's mouth. The liquid dripped down the throat and caused drowsiness. Dentists provided their patients with sets of teeth wired together. These were real teeth, not false ones.

With the defeat of the Roman Empire by the barbarians in the 5th century, civilization became centered in the easter half of Europe where the old Greek ideas still survived. The capital of the area was Byzantium, later to be known as Constantinople and now Istanbul. Medical progress here was desperately slow. The Muslims, who chiefly populated the area, relied on information contained in the books of Hippocrates which were translated into Arabic.

In England, after the departure of the Romans about 400 A.D., the invading Anglo-Saxons neglected the Roman baths and public health systems, and medical treatment declined.

2. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions.

1. What was the level of the development of Romans surgery?

2. How many surgical instruments did Romans have?

3. What kind of operation did they do?

4. What form anesthetic did they use?

5. What happened with the Roman medicine with the defeat of Roman Empire by the barbarians?

6. Did the medical treatment decline?

7. Who chiefly populated the area of Byzantium?

8. What did Anglo-Saxons neglect?

9. Who provided their patients with the sets of teeth?

10. What was placed into patient’s mouth?

IV. True/untrue, correct and write down the sentences.

1. The Romans transplanted human organs from one person to another.

2. They performed plastic surgery and developed a form of anesthetic.

3. They did “Hollywood smiles”.

4. The barbarians used all knowledge of Romans.

5. They became civilized.

6. The capital of Byzantium was Constantia.

7. Medical knowledge was also highly-developed.

8. Anglo-Saxons liked the Roman baths.

9. The books of Hippocrates were translated into Arabic.

10. The Anglo-Saxons neglected the Roman Baths and public heath systems.

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Surgical instruments, plastic surgery, drowsiness, defeat, the barbarians, the Muslims, undergoing operations, sponge, neglect.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. The Romans had nearly two hundred surgical instruments.

2. The Muslims relied on information contained in the books of Hippocrates.

3. The old Greek ideas still survived.

4. The capital of the area was Byzantium.

5. Civilization became centered in the easter half of Europe.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. The liquid dripped down the throat.

2. Dentists provided their patients with sets of teeth wired together.

3. The medical treatment declined.

4. Medical progress was desperately slow.

5. Special juice caused the drowsiness.

Unit IX

1. Read the story and translate it.

AD. 1400—1500

As the Middle Ages drew to an end, public health was being taken more seriously. Officials inspected food as well as the herbal remedies prepared by the apothecaries (chemists), and supervised the cleaning of some streets. Hospitals and universities were built in large numbers. About 1450 Johann Gutenberg invented printing by movable type, and books could then be produced more cheaply and in greater quantities. Medical knowledge from different countries could be properly recorded, studied and compared.

At that time doctors were very often highly-educated men, well-respected in the community. Surgeons were considered to be of much lower breed. They did their work in public places or among the wounded on the battlefield, where the newly-invented guns and cannon were causing dreadful injuries. They were joined by barbers, butchers and even executioners in the process of letting blood and the removal of teeth. Some 'quacks' specialized in conjuring tricks by which they pretended to remove bloodstained pebbles from the heads of mental patients!

Although the practice of medicine improved further between the 15th and 16th centuries, surgery was still a barbarous and painful practice in which patients often suffered more from the treatment than they did from then-original complaints.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. What changes in medicine were in the end of the Middle Ages?

2. What measures were taken for improvement of the public health?

3. What was the invention of Johann Gutenberg?

4. Who was considered to be of much lower breed?

5. Who often worked as surgeons?

6. What kind of job did they do?

7. What were built in large number?

8. Were the doctors highly-educated men?

9. Who specialized in conjuring tricks?

10. What did they “remove’ from the heads of mental patients?

3. True/untrue, correct and write down sentences.

1. Surgeons were highly-educated men.

2. About 1450 Johann Gutenberg built large numbers of hospitals and universities.

3. Doctors were barbers, butchers and even executioners.

4. Medicine of that time was very important and respected profession.

5. From their treatment patients suffered more than from their ailments.

6. The practice of medicine improved further between the 13th and 14th centuries.

7. Surgeons were considered to be of much lower breed.

8. The first book was printed in 1450 year.

9. The books could be produced more cheaply in greater quantities.

10. Surgery was still barbarous and painful practice!

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Middle Ages, to supervise, large numbers, movable type, lower breed, newly-invented, executioner, mental patient.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Public health was being taken more seriously.

2. Officials inspected food as well as the herbal remedies.

3. They were joined by barbers, butchers and even executioners.

4. Surgery was still a barbarous and painful practice.

5. The guns and cannon were causing dreadful injuries.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. About 1450 Johann Gutenberg invented printing by movable type.

2. Surgeons were considered to be of much lower breed.

3. They pretended to remove bloodstained pebbles from the heads of mental patients.

4. The doctors were well-respected men in the community.

5. Officials supervised the cleaning of some streets.

UNIT X

1. Read the story and translate it. Studying the human body

Even as far back as Roman times people had a fear of dead bodies. Dissection, that is the cutting open of bodies to learn more about the various parts and how they work, was banned by the religious authorities and by law. This delayed the study of anatomy for over a thousand years.

It is perhaps strange that the first real effort to study the human body was made by Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael and, in particular, Leonardo da Vinci. Leonardo wished to draw the body with more realism than had previously been done and so he carefully examined the shape of the bone structure and muscles. Not satisfied with this he dissected over thirty dead bodies himself and drew pictures of most of the internal organs as well as the veins and arteries.

Later, a doctor named Andreas Vesalius turned the study of anatomy into a proper and recognized practice. In order to obtain subjects for his early examinations he had to steal the corpses of criminals and highwaymen which were left hanging on roadside gallows after public executions. A native of Brussels, Vesalius trained as a doctor in Paris, later moving to Padua University, northern Italy, where he became Professor of Anatomy. In 1543 he had published an illustrated book - The Working of the Human Body.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. Why learning anatomy by cutting open of bodies was banned?

2. What was the aim of such dissection?

3. Who made the first real effort to study the human body?

4. Why Leonardo da Vinci was not satisfied?

5. What did he do?

6. Who was Andreas Vesalius?

7. What did he do?

8. Why is he a remarkable person in anatomy?

9. Why did he steal the corpses of criminals?

10. When had he published his illustrated book?

IV. True/untrue, correct and write down the sentences.

1. In Roman times people had a fear of dead bodies.

2. The first real effort to study the human body was made by Aristotle.

3. Leonardo da Vinci was an anatomist.

4. Leonardo da Vinci drew first picture of human organs.

5. Leonardo da Vinci turned the study of anatomy into a proper and recognized practice.

6. Andreas Vesalius was one of the anatomist in Roman times.

7. Leonardo da Vinci was an artist, engineer, mechanic.

8. Vesalius had published first illustrated book.

9. Vesalius trained as a doctor in Saint-Petersburg.

10. Andreas Vesalius published a humoristic book.

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Fear, dissection, Renaissance, cutting open of bodies, highwaymen, execution, a proper and recognized practice, banned.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Leonardo wished to draw the body with more realism.

2. Vesalius trained as a doctor in Paris.

3. The study of anatomy was delayed for over a thousand.

4. He carefully examined the shape of bone structure and muscles.

5. In Padua University he became Professor of Anatomy.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. Leonardo da Vinci Dissected over thirty dead bodies himself.

2. The criminals and highwaymen were left on roadside gallows.

3. Dissection was banned by the religions authorities.

4. The study of the human body was made by Renaissance artists.

5. Vesalius was moving to Padua University.

Unit XI

1. Read the story and translate it. Blood and air

The next important advance in medical knowledge came in 1627 when an English doctor, William Harvey, discovered how blood flowed through the body. As a member of St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London, he carried out numerous experiments on animals and human bodies and finally arrived at the correct conclusion that the heart is a pump which forces blood outward through the arteries to all parts of the body, the veins then carrying the circulating blood back to the heart again. He also found that valves in the heart allowed the blood to flow only in one direction.

Later in the same century another great discovery was made. This time it was a chemist, not a doctor, who made it. He was an Englishman named Robert Boyle, who found that air had substance and could be measured and weighed, in the following century an Englishman, Joseph Priestley and a Frenchman, Antoine Lavoisier, working separately, they found that air was a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and that the harder the body worked the more air it needed to keep it going.

However, despite these discoveries, the 17th century ended and the 18th century began without any great changes in the treatment of illness. Bleeding, purging and dieting were still the popular remedies. Smallpox became the most dreaded disease.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. Who and when discovered how blood flow through the body?

1. What experiments did he carry before discovery?

2. What did he found as well?

3. What was final conclusion?

4. What was discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier?

5. What was discovered by Robert Boyle?

6. Who found that air had substance?

7. Is air a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen?

8. What disease became the most dreaded?

9. Oxygen and nitrogen are very rare substances, aren’t they?

IV. True/untrue, correct and write down sentences.

1. The next advance in medical knowledge in 1627.

2. The heart is just like computer..

3. He discovered how blood flow through the body.

4. Robert Boyle found that air had substance and could be measured and weighed.

5. Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier found that the harder the body worked the less air it needed.

6. Also they found that air was a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen.

7. Robert Boyle was a biologist.

8. Bleeding, purging and dieting were still the popular remedies.

9. Antoine Lavoiser was from Odessa.

10. The 18^th century began without any great changes in medicine.

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Conclusion, arteries and veins, circulating blood, mixture, smallpox, remedies, dreaded disease.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. The harder the body works the more air it needs.

2. Later in the same century another great discovery was made.

3. Bleeding is still best remedy.

4. Air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen.

5. Smallpox became the most dreaded.

2. Make up alternative questions

1. Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoiser were working separately.

2. He was Englishman named Robert Boyle.

3. The air could be measured and weighed.

4. The heart is a pump.

5. The heart forces blood outward through the arteries to all parts of the body.

Unit XII

1. Read the story and translate it. The relief of pain

Although a form of hypnotism had been practiced in India, and the Romans sometimes used anesthetic sponges, it is doubtful whether these ideas for easing pain had much real effect. As recently as one hundred and thirty years ago only external operations, such as amputations, were possible and these were occasions of utter horror for the patient. He, or she, would be strapped to a table or held down by assistants and the surgeon would cut and saw through the limb while the patient screamed in agony. Surgeons tried to work quickly so as not to prolong the torture.

In 1799, Sir Humphrey Davy discovered that nitrous oxide, or 'laughing gas', helped to remove pain when breathed into the lungs and could make people temporarily unconscious. Forty years later Michael Faraday found that ether had the same effect, in 1844, two dentists showed that teeth could be painlessly extracted using 'laughing gas', and in 1846 a famous American surgeon of the time, John Warren, carried out a successful operation on a patient's throat using ether as an anesthetic. In the following year chloroform was found to relieve pain during childbirth.

Many prominent people still frowned on the use of anesthetics and it was not until Queen Victoria agreed to have chloroform at the birth of her seventh child that the controversy finally died away.

II. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions.

1. What had been practiced in India?

2. Who agreed to have chloroform at the birth?

3. What does mean “laughing gas”?

4. When and who discovered nitrous oxide?

5. How does nitrous oxide work?

6. What did Michael Faraday find?

7. What could be painlessly extracted using “laughing gas”?

8. Why do some people still frown on the use of anesthetics?

9. Michael Faraday was an outstanding physicist, wasn’t he?

10. What can make people temporarily unconscious?

IV. Complete the following sentences.

1. Surgeons tried to work quickly…

2. One hundred and thirty years ago operation was…

3. In 1799, sir Humphrey Davy discovered that …

4. Michael Faraday found that ether…

5. In 1844 two dentists showed…

6. John Warren carried out a successful operation on …

7. Many prominent people still…

8. Queen Victoria agreed to have chloroform at the childbirth…

9. He, or she, would be strapped to a table…

10. The Romans sometimes used anesthetic sponges…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Hypnotism, anesthetic sponges, external operation, utter horror, 'laughing gas', unconscious, ether, chloroform, childbirth, throat, to extract, temporarily.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. A form of hypnotism had been practiced in India.

2. Surgeons tried to work quickly so as not to prolong the torture.

3. Michael Faraday found that ether had the same effect.

4. Nitrous oxide helps to remove pain.

5. Chloroform was found to relieve pain during child birth.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. He was using ether an anesthetic.

2. Many prominent people still frowned on the use of anesthetics.

3. The patient holds down by assistants.

4. Queen Victoria agreed to have chloroform at the birth.

5. One hundred and fifty years ago only external operations were possible.

Unit XIII

I. Read the story and translate it. Safer surgery

Although some doctors still clung to bleeding as a remedy for numerous ills, many new drugs and techniques were being developed by the latter part of the 19th century. The surgeon was no longer a butcher or a barber but was now recognized as a skilled craftsman on an equal level with the doctor.

But surgery still had its problems and a patient's recovery was still mainly a matter of good luck. However, another great advance was made when a famous surgeon of that time, Joseph Lister, heard about the work of Louis Pasteur and his experiments showing that germs are present on and around everything. Lister decided that germs must be the cause of wound infec­tions and of the failure of many operations. He set about cleaning and sterilizing everything that had anything to do with an operation; the patient's skin, the surgeon's hands, instruments, sewing thread and, swabs. Later on, instead of operating in their ordinary clothes, surgeons were required to wear special gowns and masks. Rubber gloves were invented in 1890. All these precautions made a tremendous difference and the hospital death-rate fell rapidly.

The way was now open for surgeons to perform more difficult internal operations, including even those on the brain. The development of blood transfusion added still further to the range of surgical possibilities. It has since saved hundreds of thousands of lives.

II. Retell it contents in English.

III. Answer the following questions.

1. Is bleeding still use in medicine?

2. What are present on and around everything?

3. What was the main problem of surgery in the 19th century?

4. How did works of Louis Pasteur help surgery?

5. What did Joseph Lister decide to do?

6. What was opened for surgeons to perform?

7. What was the result of Joseph Lister decision?

8. What were surgeons required to wear?

9. What were invented in 1890?

10. Who was no longer a butcher or a barber?

IV. Complete the following sentences.

1. He set about cleaning and…

2. Rubber gloves were…

3. The development of blood transfusion …

4. However, another great advance was…

5. Lister decided that…

6. All these precautious made a tremendous …

7. The development of blood transfusion added still further to…

8. It has since saved hundreds of…

9. Later on, instead of operating in their ordinary clothes…

10. The surgeons were required to wear special gowns and masks…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Clung to bleeding, surgeon, craftsman, germs, infec­tion, surgical possibilities, rubber gloves, internal operations.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. Surgery still has its problems.

2. The surgeons were ready to perform more difficult operations.

3. It has saved hundreds of lives.

4. The hospital death-rate fell rapidly.

5. All these precautious made a tremendous difference.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. Many new drugs and techniques were being developed.

2. Surgeons were skilled craftsman.

3. They were on an equal level with the doctors.

4. Another great advance was made by Joseph Lister.

5. He heard about the works and experiments of Louis Pasteur.

Unit XIV

1. Read the story and translate it.

X-rays

At about the same time that surgeons were beating the germ menace in hospitals another important discovery was being made. It concerned a special, sealed glass tube 'from which the air had been withdrawn and through which an electric current was passed. Cathode rays were generated which caused the tube to glow. Experimenting with this equipment, a German professor named Roentgen found that it produced an invisible ray that would pass through quite thick substances. On placing his hand in front of the apparatus he saw that the rays passed through the flesh but cast a shadow of the bones on to a screen. Because he did not know what the rays were he called them X-rays. The significance of these rays in helping to diagnose internal complaints was quickly realized.

Today, X-rays are also used to cure deep-seated diseases such as cancer, but these are not produced in the same way as the rays which show up parts of the body. It is thanks to the devoted, and often dangerous, work of Madame Marie and Professor Pierre Curie in discovering radium and its “radioactive” properties that our doctors and surgeons have this added weapon with which to combat malignant disease.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. What important discovery was made by Roentgen?

2. How are x-rays also used today?

3. What was quickly realized?

4. Why did he call them X-rays?

5. How did the x-rays help medicine and humans?

6. Why do we thankful to Madame Marie and Professor Pierre Curie?

7. What did they discover?

8. Who has added weapon to combat disease?

9. Who discovered radium and its “radioactive” properties?

10. What cast a shadow of the bones on to a screen?

IV. Complete the following sentences.

1. It concerned a special, sealed glass…

2. On placing his hand in front of the apparatus he saw…

3. At about the same time that surgeons were beating…

4. Because he didn’t know what the ray were.

5. The significance of these rays in helping…

6. X-rays are used to cure…

7. It is thanks to the devoted …

8. Doctors and surgeons have this added weapon…

9. Experimenting with this equipment…

10. Cathode rays were generated…

V. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Glass tube, electric current, cathode rays, invisible, shadow, diagnose, malignant disease, weapon, dangerous, invisible rays, sealed glass tube.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. He saw that the rays passed through the flesh.

2. X-rays are also used to cure deep-seated diseases.

3. Marie and Pierre Curie discovered radium.

4. Our doctors and surgeons have weapon to combat malignant disease.

5. X-rays could pass trough quite thick substances.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. His work was quite dangerous.

2. The significance of these rays was quickly realized.

3. The surgeons were beating the germ menace in hospitals.

4. His apparatus produces an invisible ray.

5. He was experimenting with special equipment.

Unit XV

I. Read the story and translate it

Into the 20th century

It can be said that in the 19th century more progress was made in the treatment of disease than in the preceding two thousand years. Indeed, the previous pages of this book show how many important discoveries were made.

However, at the beginning of the present century the family doctor was still working very much on his own, diagnosing ailments and treating them mainly from the contents of his 'little black bag^,. As time went on he became a member of a team. He was able to draw on the knowledge of people who specialized in various diseases, chemists, research workers and laboratory technicians.

The problem of payment still remained. Medical services cost money and those who needed them most were often the very ones who could least afford them. At first various insurance systems were introduced to help meet the cost, and then in 1948 the National Health Service was launched, bringing medical and surgical treatment within the range of everyone in Britain. Some countries have a similar service while in others people still receive medical attention on a fee-paying and insurance basis.

While most of the old killer diseases have been brought under control, this century has produced its own occupational ailments. Cancer in its various forms has yet to be mastered.

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

1. What progress was made in the 19^th century in medicine?

2. What important discoveries were made in the previous years?

3. How does the family doctor usually work?

4. When was the first insurance medicine launched?

5. Who specialized in various diseases as well?

6. What problem does still remain in medical service?

7. What kind of medicine service is in your country?

8. What are the occupational ailments of this century?

9. What does it mean “the family doctor”?

10. What was introduced to help meet the cost?

IV. Discuss in group on such topic: “Free or paid medicine service. Positives and negatives.”. Right down “+” and “—“ different points of view.

Treatment, family doctor, problem of payment, surgical treatment, killer diseases, occupational ailments, cancer, AIDS, to launch, to afford, similar.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. The problem of payment still remains.

2. The family doctor was working very much of his own.

3. This century has produced its own occupation ailments.

4. In Britain people receive medical attention on a fee-paying and insurance basis.

5. Medical services cost money.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. He is able to draw on the knowledge.

2. Some countries have a similar service.

3. The old killer diseases have been brought under control.

4. The National Health Service was launched.

5. A family doctor became a member of a team.

Unit XVI

1. Read the story and translate it. Machines and 'spare part, surgery

Our story of medicine began in prehistoric times and has taken us through ages of superstition and horror, through short periods of advance and enlightenment and centuries of ignorance and disbelief. We have now come to an era of fantastic progress in which machines are made to reproduce body functions and human organs are passed on from one person to another.

A wonderful recent invention was the artificial kidney. This carries out the function of a patient's own kidneys while they are being rested or operated upon, or if they cease to function.

The heart-lung machine takes over the work of a patient's heart and lungs during a heart operation and enables the surgeon to carry out his intricate work without hurry.

In recent years medical science has increased the knowledge of how to transplant certain organs from a person recently dead into a living person whose own organs are diseased, in special cases of blindness the transplanting of the cornea of the eye can bring back sight to the living. Kidneys can be replaced, and now heart transplanting is being undertaken.

Transplanting or “spare part” surgery, is still in its infancy. Who knows what the story of medicine will tell a hundred years from now!

2. Retell it contents in English.

3. Answer the following questions.

   1. What did the story of medicine begin?

   2. Where have we come now?

   3. What organs can be transplanted?

   4. What was the recent wonderful innovation?

   5. What is it “spare part surgery”?

   6. What does enable the surgeon to carry out his intricate work?

   7. What can be replaced?

   8. Are these innovations very important?

   9. What can bring sight to the living people?

   10. When and where heart transplanting being undertaken for the first time?

IV. A) Make up your own sentences with the following words and word-combinations;

b) Explain in English the meanings of the following words and word-combinations;

Kidney, heart, lungs, cornea, transplanting, artificial kidney, “spare part surgery”, invention, heart-lung-machine, ignorance .

V. True/untrue. Correct and write down the sentences.

1. A wonderful recent invention was the artificial kidney.

2. We have come to the age of superstition.

3. Human organs are easily passed from one person to another.

4. Kidneys can’t be replaced.

5. Transplanting or “spare part surgery” is still in its infancy.

6. We haven’t come to an era of fantastic progress.

7. Machines are made to reproduce body functions.

8. Doctors can transplant organs from a person recently dead into a living person.

9. The heart-lung machine takes over the work of a patient’s heat and lungs.

10. The machine will be developed further on.

VI. Make up disjunctive questions

1. In recent years medical science has increased the knowledge.

2. A wonderful invention was the artificial kidney.

3. Kidneys can be replaced.

4. The story of medicine will tell us a lot of interesting things.

5. Transplanting of the corners of the eye can bring back sight.

VII. Make up alternative questions

1. This story began in prehistoric times.

2. Now we are living in the period of advance and enlightenment.

3. The previous centuries were the centuries of ignorance and disbelief.

4. Human organs are passed on from one person to another.

5. The heart lung machine saves hundreds of lives.

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