
- •Contents
- •Introduction
- •§ 2. Two Approaches to Language
- •§ 3. Lexicology and Sociolinguistics
- •§ 4. Lexical Units
- •§ 5. Varieties of Words
- •§ 6. Course of Modern English Lexicology
- •Lecture 1. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis
- •§ 1. Contrastive Analysis
- •§ 2. Statistical Analysis
- •§ 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
- •§ 4. Distributional analysis and Co-occurence
- •§ 5. Transformational Analysis
- •§ 6. Componental Analysis
- •§ 7. Method of Semantic Differential
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. Read and analyze the following extract on the basis of the above mentioned methods of linguistic analysis:
- •Lecture 2. Semasiology
- •§ 1. Referential Approach
- •§ 2. Meaning in the Referential Approach
- •§ 3. Functional Approach to Meaning
- •§ 4. Relation Between the Two Approaches
- •§ 5. Grammatical Meaning
- •§ 6. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 7. Part-of-Speech Meaning
- •§ 8. Denotational and Connotational
- •§ 9. Emotive Charge
- •§ 10. Stylistic Reference
- •§ 11. Emotive Charge and Stylistic Reference
- •§ 12. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 13. Functional (Parf-of-Speech) Meaning
- •§ 14. Differential Meaning
- •§ 15. Distributional Meaning
- •§ 16. Morphological Motivation
- •§ 17. Phonetical Motivation
- •§ 18. Semantic Motivation
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. Translate the following words into Ukrainian paying attention to the difference in their meaning.
- •2. A) Comment on the lexical meaning of the words in bold type. B) Comment on their lexical and grammatical contexts. C) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •3. Classify the following words according to the type of motivation.
- •4. A) Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian. B) Classify the words in bold type into affixal and root antonyms.
- •5. A) Pick out synonyms from the sentences below. Comment on their shades of meaning and stylistic reference. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •Lecture 3. Word-groups and phraseological units
- •§ 1. Lexical Valency (Collocability)
- •§ 2. Grammatical Valency
- •§ 3. Distribution as the Criterion of Classification
- •§ 4. Lexical Meaning
- •§ 5. Structural Meaning
- •§ 6. Interrelation of Lexical and Structural Meaning in Word-Groups
- •Interdependence of structure and meaning in word-groups
- •§ 7. Syntactic Structure (Formula) and Pattern of Word-Groups
- •§ 8. Motivation in Word-Groups
- •§ 9. Free Word-groups Versus Set-phrases. Phraseological Units, Idioms, Word-equivalents
- •§ 10. Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation (Idiomaticity)
- •§ 11. Classification
- •§ 12. Phraseological Units and Idioms Proper
- •§ 13. Phraseology as a Subsystem of Language
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. Comment on the structural types and patterns of the following words. Translate the words into Ukrainian.
- •2. Group the phraseological units in bold type according to their classification mentioned in the lecture. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •3. Group the following phraseological units according to the classification based on the structural principle. Give their Ukrainian equivalents.
- •4. Define the meanings of the following polysemantic units in bold type. Comment on the ways of developing their polysemy. Translate the sentence into Ukrainian.
- •5. Group the following phraseological units into synonymous pairs. Give their Ukrainian equivalents.
- •6. Choose antonyms to the following phraseological units (use the list in brackets below). Translate these antonymous pairs into Ukrainian.
- •Lecture 4. Word-structure
- •§ 1. Segmentation of Words into Morphemes
- •§ 2. Principles of Morphemic Analysis. Types of Word Segmentability
- •§ 3. Classification of Morphemes
- •§ 4. Procedure of Morphemic Analysis
- •§ 5. Morphemic Types of Words
- •§ 6. Derivative Relations
- •§ 7. Derivational Bases
- •§ 8. Derivational Affixes
- •§ 9. Semi-Affixes
- •§10. Derivational Patterns
- •§ 11. Derivational Types of Words
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. Make the morphemic analysis of the following words. Translate the words into Ukrainian.
- •2. Classify the stems of the words given below into simple, derived, compound; free, bound, semi-bound.
- •3. Analyze the structure of the following words on the derivational and morphemic levels, use the method of ic and uc analysis:
- •4. Name the nouns formed with the following suffixes. State which of the suffixes are productive: -tion, -dom, -ness, -ism, -ship, -er, -ist, -th, -ige. Lecture 5. Word-formation
- •Various ways of forming words
- •§ 1. Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •§ 2. Word-formation. Definition.
- •§ 3. Word-formation as the Subject of Study
- •§ 4. Productivity of Word-formation
- •§ 5. Definition. Degree of Derivation. Prefixal and Suffixal Derivative
- •§ 6. Prefixation. Some Debatable Problems
- •§ 7. Classification of Prefixes
- •§ 8. Suffixation. Peculiarities of Some Suffixes
- •§ 9. Main Principles of Classification
- •§ 10. Polysemy and Homonymy
- •§ 11. Synonymy
- •§ 12. Productivity
- •§ 13. Origin of Derivational Affixes
- •§ 14. Definition
- •§ 15. Typical Semantic Relations
- •I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs).
- •II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives).
- •§ 16. Diachronic Approach of Conversion. Origin
- •§ 17. Productivity. Traditional and Occasional Conversion
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •5. Comment on the examples of converted words in the sentences below. State to what part of speech they belong and the derivational pattern оf conversion.
- •Lecture 6. Word-formation. Compounding
- •§ 2. Structure
- •§ 3. Meaning
- •§ 4. Structural Meaning of the Pattern
- •§ 5. The Meaning of Compounds. Motivation
- •§ 6. Relations between the iCs of Compounds
- •§ 7. Different Parts of Speech
- •§ 8. Means of Composition
- •§ 9. Correlation between Compounds and Free Phrases
- •§ 10. Sources of Compounds
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. Analyse the structure of the iCs of the following compound words. Translate the compounds into Ukrainian.
- •2. Find compounds in the following sentences, define their structural type and state to what part of speech they belong. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •3. Discriminate between compounds proper and derivational compounds given in bold type. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •4. Translate the following words and phrases into English using the stems in brackets.
- •Lecture 7. Etymological survey of the english word-stock
- •§1 . Some Basic Assumptions
- •§ 2. Semantic Characteristics and Collocability
- •§ 3. Derivational Potential
- •§ 4. Causes and Ways of Borrowing
- •§ 5. Criteria of Borrowings
- •§ 6. Assimilation of Borrowings
- •§ 7. Phonetic, Grammatical and Lexical Assimilation of Borrowings
- •Interrelation between native and borrowed elements
- •§ 8. The Role of Native and Borrowed Elements
- •§ 9. Influence of Borrowings
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. A) Using an etymological dictionary, classify the following words of native origin into: 1) Indo-European, 2) Germanic, 3) English proper.
- •3. Comment on the origin of the following geographical names.
- •4. A) Pick out the French borrowings from the sentences given below. Identify the period of borrowings. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •5. State from what languages the following words are borrowed. Comment on their meaning.
- •6. A) Classify the borrowings given in bold type according to the degree of their assimilation. State from what languages they are borrowed. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •Lecture 8. Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of modern english word-stock
- •Interdependence of various aspects of the word
- •§ 1. Notional and Form-Words
- •§ 2. Development of Vocabulary
- •§ 3. Structural and Semantic Peculiarities of New Vocabulary Units
- •§ 4. Productive Word-Formation
- •§ 5. Various Ways of Word-Creation
- •§ 6. Borrowing
- •§ 7. Number of Vocabulary Items in Actual Use and Number of Vocabulary Units in Modern English
- •Variants and dialects of the english language
- •§ 8. General Characteristics of the English Language in Different Parts of the English-Speaking World
- •§ 9. Lexical Differences of Territorial Variants
- •§ 10. Some Points of History of the Territorial Variants and Lexical Interchange Between Them
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •2. Pick out all the substantivized adjectives from the following sentences. Comment on their structural-semantic features and the degree of substantivation. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •3. Compare the following pairs of nouns and adjectives. Comment on their meanings. Use the adjectives in sentences of your own.
- •4. A) Comment on the formation of the clipped words given in bold type. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •5. A) Pick out all the abbreviations from the sentences given below. Comment on their formation. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •6. A) Comment on the formation of the following blends, b) Translate the blends into Ukrainian.
- •Lecture 9. Fundamentals of english lexicography
- •§ 1. Encyclopaedic and Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 2. Classification of Linguistic Dictionaries
- •§ 3. Explanatory Dictionaries
- •§ 4. Translation Dictionaries
- •§ 5. Specialised Dictionaries
- •§ 6. The Selection of Lexical Units for Inclusion
- •§ 7. Selection and Arrangement of Meanings
- •§ 8. Definition of Meanings
- •§ 9. Illustrative Examples
- •§ 10. Choice of Adequate Equivalents
- •§ 11. Setting of the Entry
- •§ 12. Structure of the Dictionary
- •Practical tasks and exercises
- •1. A) Consulting an etymological dictionary, analyse the structure and origin of the following words. Comment on the phenomenon of folk (false) etymology. B) Translate the words into Ukrainian.
- •2. A) Using an etymological dictionary, define the type of meaning of the words in bold type. B) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
- •Перелік рекомендованих джерел lecture 1 methods and procedures of lexicological analysis.
- •Lecture 2 semasiology
- •Lecture 3 word-groups and phraseological units
- •Lecture 4 word-structure
- •Lecture 5 word-formation. Various ways of forming words.
- •Lecture 6 word-formation. Compounding
- •Lecture 7 etymological survey of the english word-stock
- •Lecture 8
- •Various aspects of vocabulary units and replenishment of modern english word-stock. Variants and dialects of the english language
- •Lecture 9 fundamentals of english lexicography
§ 5. Criteria of Borrowings
Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.
In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with waltz (G.),. psychology (Gr.), soufflé (Fr.), etc. The initial position of the sounds [v], [dз], [з] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), vaccine (L.), jungle (Hindi), gesture (L.), giant (OFr.), zeal (L.), zero (Fr.), zinc (G.), etc.
The morphological structure of the word and its grammatical forms may also bear witness to the word being adopted from another language. Thus the suffixes in the words neurosis (Gr.) and violoncello (It.) betray the foreign origin of the words. The same is true of the irregular plural forms papyra (from papyrus, Gr.), pastorali (from pastorale, It.), beaux (from beau, Fr.), bacteria, (from bacterium, L.) and the like.
Last but not least is the lexical meaning of the word. Thus the concept denoted by the words ricksha(w), pagoda (Chin.) make us suppose that we deal with borrowings.
These criteria are not always helpful. Some early borrowings have become so thoroughly assimilated that they are unrecognisable without a historical analysis, e.g. chalk, mile (L.), ill, ugly (Scand.), enemy, car (Fr.), etc. It must also be taken into consideration that the closer the relation between the languages, the more difficult it is to distinguish borrowings.
§ 6. Assimilation of Borrowings
It is now essential to analyse the changes that borrowings have undergone in the English language and how they have adapted themselves to its peculiarities.
All the changes that borrowed elements undergo may be divided into two large groups.
On the one hand there are changes specific of borrowed words only. These changes aim at adapting words of foreign origin to the norms of the borrowing language.
The suffixes -ar, -or, -ator in early Latin borrowings were replaced by the highly productive Old English suffix -ere, as in L. Caesar>OE. Casere, L. sutor>OE. sūtere.
It is very important to discriminate between the two processes - the adaptation of borrowed material to the norms of the language and the development of these words according to the laws of the language.
§ 7. Phonetic, Grammatical and Lexical Assimilation of Borrowings
Since the process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage Soviet linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and lexical assimilation of borrowings.
Phonetic assimilation comprising changes in sound-form and stress is perhaps the most conspicuous.
Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds. For instance, the long [e] and [ε] in recent French borrowings, alien to English speech, are rendered with the help of [ei] (as in the words communiqué, chaussée, café).
Grammatical Assimilation. Usually as soon as words from other languages were introduced into English they lost their former grammatical categories and paradigms and acquired hew grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words, as in
им. спутник Com. sing. Sputnik
род. спутника Poss. sing. Sputnik’s
дат. спутнику Com. pl. Sputniks
вин. спутник Poss. pl. Sputniks’
вин. спутником
предл. о спутнике
However, there are some words in Modern English that have for centuries retained their foreign inflexions. Thus a considerable group of borrowed nouns, all of them terms or literary words adopted in the 6th century or later, have preserved their original plural inflexion to this day, e.g. phenomenon (L.) - phenomena; addendum (L.) - addenda; parenthesis (Gr.) - parentheses. Other borrowings of the same period have two plural forms - the native and the foreign, e.g. vacuum (L.) - vacua, vacuums, virtuoso (It.) - virtuosi, virtuosos.
Lexical Assimilation. When a word is taken over into another language, its semantic structure as a rule undergoes great changes.
Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings. Thus the word timbre that had a number of meanings in French was borrowed into English as a musical term only. The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish, were adopted only in one of their meanings - ‘the goods carried in a ship’, ‘a barrel for holding liquids’ respectively.
The word scope, which originally had the meaning of ‘aim, purpose’, now means ‘ability to understand’, ‘the field within which an activity takes place, sphere’, ‘opportunity, freedom of action’. As a rule the development of new meanings takes place 50 - 00 years after the word is borrowed.
Another phenomenon which must also receive special attention is the formation of derivatives from borrowed word-stems. New derivatives are usually formed with the help of productive affixes, often of Anglo-Saxon origin. For instance: faintness, closeness, easily, nobly, etc. As a rule derivatives begin to appear rather soon after the borrowing of the word. Thus almost immediately after the borrowing of the word sputnik the words pre-sputnik, sputnikist, sputnikked, to out-sputnik were coined in English.
Many derivatives were formed by means of conversion, as in to manifesto (748) < manifesto (It., 644); to encore (748) < encore (Fr., 72); to coach (62) < coach (Fr., 556).
Similarly hybrid compounds were formed, e. g. faint-hearted, ill-tempered, painstaking.