Экзаменационный билет №11

How to take tests.

Students’ success in studying is usually measured by their performance on classroom tests. Since test performance may be affected by variables above and beyond a student’s knowledge of the material, it is in each student’s interest to understand these other factors

According to recent studies, many college students are overly optimistic in predicting their performance on tests and, in fact, are often underprepared. One way to combat this natural optimism is to overlearn material (persons who read and rehearse a list beyond the point where they repeat it without error have overlearned material).

There are also more specific test-taking strategies. One of the most interesting lines of research concerns changing responses. According to traditional folk wisdom, a person’s first response to a test item is more likely to be correct than his second; therefore it is assumed that students should stick with their first choices.

Several surveys have found that about three out of four students agree with this theory, along with a majority of teachers. Indeed, in a survey at Texas A & M University, about 20% of the faculty members directly advised their students not to change responses because doing so would probably result in lower grades. However, when the researchers who conducted this survey went on to review earlier studies regarding this question, they found that this advice was probably wrong. These studies showed that most people do change some answers and are likely to achieve higher tests scores as a result. That is, people are more likely to correct an error when they change an answer than they are to introduce a new mistake.

Экзаменационный билет №12

Human development.

In terms of developmental psychology, humans develop abilities in four domains: cognitive, social, linguistic and emotional. Development in the linguistic and cognitive domains is completed first. In terms of learning their native language, practically all children are accomplished speakers by the time they reach 4 years of age. In terms of cognitive development, all basic mental operations are acquired in the early years of life; a person’s IQ is relatively stable after the age of 18. Cognitive and linguistic development is still able to occur throughout the life cycle, however.

Social development is an ongoing process, involving how we attain and maintain a concept of self, whether we are introverted or extraverted, whether we perform well in groups and have leadership qualities, whether we need company or are content to be alone. All of these qualities have their basis in childhood but are shaped by life events. The development of an understanding of emotions does not appear to begin until middle childhood, and problems with interpreting emotions persist throughout the life course. The development that occur in these four domains do not occur in isolation, and changes in each separate domain can have profound effects on the other three.

Human development can begin before the infant is born. The foetus can detect sounds from the outside world and is affected by the mother’s emotions as well as by physical agents such as drugs, alcohol or HIV. Parental expectation may also affect human development -–for example, the desire for a child of a certain sex.