III. Universities

England’s two ancient universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were the only ones in the country from 1348 for almost 500 years until 1820. There were four in Scotland in the sixteenth century.

The beginning of the modern university system came with the grant of a charter to the University of London in 1836. Another university, at Durham in the north, was founded in 1832, but it remained small until quite recently. The University of Wales was established in 1893, with one constituent college in each of two big towns and two small ones. Within three years (in 1966-67) the number of universities in England doubled to 32, and in Scotland too four new ones were added.

IV. Education Authorities

In 1964 a new body was set up, the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA). Any college which has developed a Course at university level may apply to it, asking to have the course recognized as a degree – level course in its own right. If the CNAA is satisfied, the college may then organize its own syllabuses, teaching and examinations, and successful students are then awarded CNAA degrees.

In 1988 the Education Reform Act provided for a change in the status of these colleges. Twenty-eight of them as well as all the polytechnics, became independent institutions.

As distinct from the colleges and polytechnics, the universities have always been independent of both local authorities and the state. Each has a council as its own effective governing body and a vice-chancellor as an academic chief. A governing body is composed of professors, lecturers and students’ representatives and local notables. A vice-chancellor is appointed by the council. Each university has its own organization, but usually there are about six faculties, each containing a group of departments.

Apart from lecture courses the teaching is done mostly in laboratories or in tutorial group for three or four students, or seminars for about ten. Students are required to write numerous essays or seminar papers, which may be discussed in the group meetings. Some of these may be used for assessment towards the class of degree awarded. There are usually not more than twelve students for each teacher in a department, and there is plenty of personal contact between them.

V. How to enter a university (Entry to a university)

Each university’s faculties issue prospectures describing their courses. Anyone wanting to ender a university gets copies of several of these and an application form from Universities Central Council for Admissions, on which to enter applications for up to five courses in different universities. Applicants then go to visit the universities to which they have applied, and may be interviewed by lecturers, who eventually decide which of the applicants to accept, mainly on the basis of the grades obtained in the advanced – level certificate examinations. Each has a quota of new students which ought not to be exceeded, so entry to each course is in effect competitive.

VI. Adult education

Meanwhile there has been great progress with adult education. For a long time university extra-mural departments have provided a great range of evening classes, in courses of varying lenth, often as a joint ventures with the Workers’ Educational Association. Some of these classes are led by full-time extra-mural tutors, others by regular lectures in their spare time. A recent change of policy has enabled some of these courses to end with formal examinations, and diplomas for the successful students.

On a bigger scale is the Open University which developed in the 1970s. It was devised to satisfy the needs of working people of any age who wish to study in their spare time for degrees. It has a centre at the new town of Milton Keynes, between Oxford and Cambridge. Its full-time staff have produced a whole library of short Coursebooks which anyone can buy by post or from any major bookshop.

They devise courses, which they present on one of the BBC’s television Channels and by radio. Most course work is run by part-time tutors (many of whom are lecturers at other universities). These are scattered around the country, and meet students to discuss their work at regular intervals. There are short residential summer courses. The students are of all ages, some of them retired. They may spread their studies over several years, and choose their courses to suit their individual needs and preferences.

The Open University has helped greatly towards the ideal of education accessible to everyone who aspires to it, at every level.

For those retired people who do not want to work for diplomas or degrees there is a university of the Third Age with about 100 centres. It gets no government funds, and collects small subscriptions from its participants.