3). Idioms

Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

This criterion is called the degree of semantic isolation. In different types of idioms – it is different.

• Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly

Semantic classification:

2 Criteria:

• The degree of semantic isolation

• The degree of disinformation

21. English outside of England (American, Canadian, Australian and other variants of English). Dialects

American English is a set of dialectsdialects  of the English languageEnglish language  used mostly in the United StatesUnited States . Approximately two-thirds of native speakersnative speakers  of English live in the United StatesUnited States .^[2]

English is the most common language in the United States. Though the U.S. federal governmentfederal government  has no official language,

Some other English English changes in which most North American dialects do not participate:

• The shift of /æ/ to /ɑ/ (the so-called "broad Abroad A ") before /f/, /s/, /θ/, /ð/, /z/, /v/ alone or preceded by a homorganichomorganic  nasal. This is the difference between the British Received PronunciationReceived Pronunciation  and American pronunciation of bath and dance

The realization of intervocalic /t/ as a glottal stop [ʔ] (as in [bɒʔəl] for bottle).

On the other hand, North American English has undergone some sound changes not found in other varieties of English speech:^{[citation neededcitation needed ]}

• The merger ofmerger of merger of /merger of /ɑmerger of /ɑ/merger of /ɑ/ merger of /ɑ/ andmerger of /ɑ/ and merger of /ɑ/ and /ɒ/merger of /ɑ/ and /ɒ/ , making father and bother rhyme.^{[citation neededcitation needed ]}This change is nearly universal in North American English, occurring almost everywhere except for parts of eastern New England, hence the Boston accentBoston accent .^{[citation neededcitation needed ]}

The merger of /ɑ/ and /ɔ/.^{[citation neededcitation needed ]} This is the so-called cot-caught mergercot-caught merger , where cot and caught are homophoneshomophones .

• For speakers who do not merge caught and cot: The replacement of the cot vowel with the caught vowel before voiceless fricativesvoiceless fricatives  (as in cloth, off [which is found in some old-fashioned varieties of RP]), as well as before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long), usually in gone, often in on, and irregularly before /ɡ/ (log, hog, dog, fog [which is not found in British English at all]).

The replacement of the lot vowel with the strut vowel in most utterances of the words was, of, from, what and in many utterances of the words everybody, nobody, somebody, anybody; the word because has either /ʌ/ or /ɔ/;^[7][7]  want has normally /ɔ/ or /ɑ/, sometimes /ʌ/.^[8]

• Dropping of  /j/  is more extensive than in RP. In most North American accents, /j/ is dropped after all alveolaralveolar  and interdental consonant, so that new, duke, Tuesday, resume are pronounced /nu/, /duk/, /tuzdeɪ/,/ɹɪzum/.

æ-tensing  in environments that vary widely from accent to accent; for example, for many speakers, /æ/ is approximately realized as [eə] before nasal consonantsnasal consonants . In some accents, particularly those fromBaltimoreBaltimore , PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia , and New York CityNew York City , [æ] and [eə] contrast sometimes, as in Yes, I can [kæn] vs. tin can [keən].

The flappingflapping  of intervocalic /t/ and /d/ to alveolar tapalveolar tap  [ɾ] before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic /l/ (bottle), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else, whatever).

T-glottalization  is common when /t/ is in the final position of a syllable or word (get, fretful: [ɡɛʔ], [ˈfɹɛʔfəl]), though this is always superseded by the aforementioned rules of flapping

Both intervocalic /nt/ and /n/ may be realized as [n] or [ɾ̃], rarely making winter and winner homophones. Most areas in which /nt/ is reduced to /n/, it is accompanied further by nasalization of simple post-vocalic /n/, so that V/nt/ and V/n/ remain phonemically distinct.

• The mergermerger  of the vowels /ɔ/ and /o/ before 'r', making pairs like horse/hoarse, corps/core, for/four, morning/mourning, etc. homophoneshomophones .

Canadian English is the varietyvariety  of EnglishEnglish  spoken in CanadaCanada . English is the first languagefirst language , or "mother tongue", Canadian English contains elements of British EnglishBritish English  and American EnglishAmerican English  in its vocabulary, as well as many distinctive "Canadianisms". In many areas, speech is influenced by FrenchFrench , and there are notable local variations. The phoneticsphonetics , phonologyphonology , morphologymorphology , syntaxsyntax , and lexiconlexicon  for most of Canada are similar to that of the WesternWestern  andMidlandMidland  regions of the United StatesUnited States .

Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American rules.

• French-derived words that in American English end with -or and -er, such as color or center, retain British spellings (colour, honour and centre).

In other cases, Canadians and Americans differ from British spelling, such as in the case of nouns like tire and curb, which in British English are spelled tyre and kerb.

Words such as realize and paralyze are usually spelled with -ize or -yze rather than -ise or -yse. (The etymological convention that verbs derived from Greek roots are spelled with -ize and those from Latin with -ise is preserved in that practice.^{[12][12] )}

Some nouns take -ice while matching verbs take -ise – for example, practice is a noun and practise is a verb.

• Canadian spelling sometimes retains the British practice of doubling consonant when adding suffixes to words even when the final syllable (before the suffix) is not stressed. Compare Canadian (and British)travelled, counselling, and controllable (always doubled in British, more often than not in Canadian) to American traveled, counseling, and controlable (only doubled when stressed).

Australian English  is the form of the English languageEnglish language  as spoken in Australia

There are no strong variations in accent and pronunciation across different states and territories. In Tasmania and Queensland, words such as "dance" and "grant" are usually heard with the older pronunciationolder pronunciation  of these words, using [æː]. In South Australia [aː] is the norm. In other states both pronunciations can be heard. Some speakers in those areas where[æː]/[æ] is found prefer to use [aː] in such words as a sign of higher social class.^[13][13]  In words such as "pass", "can't", "last", all regional variants use [aː]

The vowels of Australian English can be divided into two categories: long and short vowels. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongsmonophthongs , mostly correspond to the lax vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation. The long vowels, consisting of both monophthongs and diphthongsdiphthongs , mostly correspond to its tense vowels and centring diphthongs. Many speakers have also coalescedcoalesced  /dj/, /sj/ and /tj/ into /dʒ/, /ʃ/ and /tʃ/, producing standard pronunciations such as [t͡ʃʰʉːn] for tune.

• t, dd and s in the combinations tr, dr and sr (this latter loan words only) also fall in with /dʒ/, /ʃ/ and /tʃ/ for many speakers, and for all speakers in the case of sr in loan words, thus tree /tʃɹiː/, draw /dʒɹɔː/ and Sri Lanka /ʃɹiˈlæŋkə/.

• In colloquial speech intervocalic /t/ undergoes voicing and flappingflapping  to the alveolar tapalveolar tap  [ɾ] after the stressed syllable and before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic /l/, though not before syllabic /n/ (bottle vs button [batn]), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else, whatever). In formal speech /t/ is retained. However, the alveolar flap is normally distinguishable by Australians from the intervocalic alveolar stop /d/, which is not flapped, thus ladder and latter, metal and medal, and coating and coding remain distinct;

• Intervocalic /nt/ in fast speech can be realised as [n], another trait shared other varieties of English at the colloquial or dialect level, though in formal speech the full form/nt/ is retained. This makes winter and winner homophones in fast speech. 1999 was a great year for EFL teachers in Australia to illustrate this : "nineen-niny-nine".

22. Borrowings, their types

• Borrowing – 1) (process) resorting to the word-stock of other languages for words to express new concepts, to further differentiate the existing concepts and to name new objects, etc.; 2) (result) a loan word, borrowed word – a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the English language. – See Assimilation, Source of borrowing, Origin of borrowing. The following types of borrowings can be distinguished:

• - loan words proper – words borrowed from another language and assimilated to this or that extent;

- loan translation – 1) (process) borrowing by means of literally translating words (usu. one part after another) or word combinations, by modelling words after foreign patterns; 2) (result) translation loans (calques) – words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language by way of literal word-for-word or morpheme-for-morpheme translation: e.g. chain smoker::Germ Kettenraucher; goes without saying::Fr. va sans dire; summit conference:: Germ. Gipfel Konferenz, Fr. conférence au sommet;

- semantic borrowings/loans – the term is used to denote the development in an English word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related word in another language (e.g. policy)

• Types of borrowings

• There are the following groups: phonetic borrowings, translation loans, semantic borrowings, and morphemic borrowings.

Phonetic borrowings are most characteristic in all languages; they are called loan words proper. Words are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning.  Then they undergo assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing language. The paradigm of the word, and sometimes the meaning of the borrowed word are also changed. Such words as: labour, travel, table, chair, people are phonetic borrowings from French; apparatchik, nomenklatura, sputnik are phonetic borrowings from Russian; bank, soprano, duet are phonetic borrowings from Italian etc.

Translation loans are word-for-word (or morpheme-for-morpheme) translations of some foreign words or expressions. In such cases the notion is borrowed from a foreign language but it is expressed by native lexical units, «to take the bull by the horns» (Latin), «fair sex» (French), «living space» (German) etc. Some translation loans appeared in English from Latin already in the Old English period, e.g. Sunday (solis dies). There are translation loans from the languages of Indians, such as: «pipe of peace», «pale-faced», from German «masterpiece», «homesickness», «superman».

• Semantic borrowings are such units when a new meaning of the unit existing in the language is borrowed. It can happen when we have two relative languages which have common words with different meanings, e.g. there are semantic borrowings between Scandinavian and English, such as the meaning «to live» for the word «to dwell’ which in Old English had the meaning «to wander». Or else the meaning «дар», «подарок» for the word «gift» which in Old English had the meaning «выкуп за жену».

Morphemic borrowings are borrowings of affixes which occur in the language when many words with identical affixes are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic structure of borrowed words becomes familiar to the people speaking the borrowing language, e.g. we can find a lot of Romanic affixes in the English word-building system, that is why there are a lot of words - hybrids in English where different morphemes have different origin, e.g. «goddess»,  «beautiful» etc.