25. Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices (euphony, rhyme, rhythm).

A phoneme has a strong associative and sound-instrumenting power. Due to its articulatory and acoustic properties certain ideas, feelings, images are awaken. It’s vivid in poetry. Euphony: produced by alliteration or assonance. Sense of ease and comfort in producing or hearing. ▲ Favors unused are favors abused. Euphony is created by the assonance of the vowels [ei, u:] and alliteration [zd] frequent in proverbs. Rhyme: repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds or sound combinations in words. ▲ One, two, three, four, five. I caught a fish alive. Assonance of vowel [ai]. Rhythm: complex unit defined as a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables (strong and weak elements) which determine the meter in poetry or the measured flow of words in prose.

▲ One, two, three, four. Mary at the cottage door.

48. A parallel construction is the stylistic device which represents identical or similar syntactical structures in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Pure parallelism depends on the repetition of syntactical arrangement of the sentence. ▲ He was not comfortable. He was not happy. These 2 sentences have identical structure. Parallel construction may be complete (maintains the principle of identical structures in the corresponding sentence) and partial (based on the repetition of some parts of successive sentences). ▲ I was growing up, he was growing old. Parallelism may carry the role of semantic equality of the parts, emotive, uniting functions. Chiasmus (reversed parallel construction) is a stylistic device based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern but with a cross order of word or phrases. ▲ Better a witty fool than I foolish wit. In this saying chiasmus is realized through different parts of speech with the same roots. It’s a syntactical not lexical stylistic device as…

46-47. Stylistic inversion, detachment.

Inversion is certain changes in the word order of an utterance. It can by grammatical and stylistic. The first one involves the structure of the utterance. It’s a norm in interrogative constructions. ▲ He is leaving for London tomorrow morning. – Is he leaving for London tomorrow? In this example no emphases is added, so it’s a grammatical inversion. Stylistic inversion doesn’t change the structural meaning of an utterance it aims at attaching logical stress or additional emotional coloring to the meaning of the utterance. ▲ In shabby shubra lived another people: to them, and them only he felt related. Detachment is a variety of stylistic inversion. It takes place when some secondary parts of the utterance are placed. So that they seem formally independent of words they logically refer to. ▲ You weren’t-ever-going to get out of this… not ever. Detachment of ever wit…

39. Climax (gradation) is a stylistic device representing a gradual increase in significance, importance or emotional tension in the utterance. Logical climax – is based on the relative importance of the component parts looked at from the point of view of the concepts embodied in them. ▲ You’re a pig and a beast and a Bolshevik. Logical climax here implies political view of the character. Emotional climax is based on the relative emotional tension produced by words with emotive meaning. Quantitative climax is an evident increase in the volume of the corresponding concepts or simple numerical increase. Anticlimax: is a sudden drop from the different or important in thought or expression to the commonplace or trivial, sometimes for humorous effect. Anticlimax is represented by an unexpected turn of the thought which ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. It results in defeated expectancy of the reader.

29. Metonymy is based on some kind of association connecting the two concept which the dictionary and contextual meaning represent. Trite (fixed) metonymy represents derivative logical meaning of a word and is fixed in dictionaries. ▲ Nothing comes between me and my Calvins (Calvin Klein Jeans). Contextual m. – unexpected substitution of one word to another. ▲ She married into conversation > very talkative man. Synecdoche – m. based on the relation between the part and the whole. ▲ He had five months to feed.

15. Terms are generally associated with a definite brunch of science and therefore with a serious of other terms belonging to that particular brunch of science. Terms are used to denote newly appearing notions connected with the development of science or art. Terms belong to the scientific styles, but they may as well appear in other styles: in newspaper style, in publicist, in belles-letters style.e.g. loan – заем, rate of interest – процентная ставка. Poetic words are used primarily in poetry. They belong to a definite style of language. They are usually used to produce a highly literary effect. Poetical words and set understandable only to a limited numbers of readers. It is mainly due to (благодаря) poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

e.g. whilom – когда-то Wight – человек, Steed – конь (шутливо)

Archaic word.Words which have become rarely used. They are in the stage of gradually passing out of generally use.E.g. pronounsThou – ты,Thee – тебя,Thy – твойVerbal ending-est – he makest

Words what have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete (вышедшие из употребления)

e.g. nay = no

methinks = it seams to me

Archaic words proper (истинные архаизмы) that are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English words that were in use in old English.

e.g. losel = a lazy fellow,troth = faith (вера)

18. Slang-very ambiguous(двусмысл.) & obscure(неясн.).S. seems to mean everything that is below the standart usage of present day English.It’s the lowest layer of E-sh voc-ry,the usage of which is regarded the violation of standart E-sh.S. is used in dialects(to reflect informal & emotional character of a conversation).S. serves to charac-ze the person who is using it.(E.g.:go mad=go nuts,shut up=belt up,boaster=big head.).Slang words are more emotive,inpoetic if compared to their neutral synonyms:nonsence=rot,money=bucks.S. can be used for those words,which are either mispronounced phonetically,morph-ly,lexically:leggo=let go. S. broad & embracing.It is regarded as the quint-essence(концентрат) of colloquial speech & therefore it stands above all laws of grammar.Some S. words loose their feature of novelty & become common literary words.(E.g.:(Br.)go to the pictures=go to the movies(Am).S. needs to translation. S. differs from ordinary lang-ge in its voc-ry.But the structure of the sentence and the morph-gy remains practically unchangeable

34. Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous reali­zation of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. For example: "It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket." Word “delightful” acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is, 'unpleasant', 'not delightful'. The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. Irony must not be confused with humour, although they have very much in common. Humour always causes laughter. What is funny must come as a sudden clash of the positive and the negative. In this respect irony can be likened to humour. But the function of irony is not confined to producing a humorous effect. In a sentence like "How clever of you!" where, due to the intonation pattern, the word 'clever' conveys a sense opposite to its literal signification, the irony does not cause a ludicrous effect. It rather expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. A word used ironically may sometimes express very subtle, almost im­perceptible nuances of meaning.

2. The main notion of stylistics is that of style. STYLE (Galperin) - a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of which are members of the same general class

Functional style of a language may be defined as a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. The main idea of the functional approach is the distinction between the language (as a symbolic system) and the speech (as the very process of discourse generation).

Hence, the style of a text is determined mainly by the communication context. Five functional styles are usually singled out, such as official style, scientific style, publicist style, colloquial style, and literary style.

NORM - the invariant of the phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactical patterns circulating in language-in-action at a given period of time. //prescribed rules of using a language//

Form is a term which refers to recognizable shape of a text or a speech act. This shape may be either physical or abstract. It is physical in writing and abstract in spoken communication. Written forms are novels, stories, articles, poems, letters etc. Spoken forms are conversations, TV and radio commentaries, announcements, jokes etc.

3. Context is a linguistic encirclement of a language unit. It also comprises conditions and peculiarities of functioning of a language unit in speech. Such types of context as situational context, social and historical context, linguistic context, stylistic context: are distinguished.

Stylistic context is a stretch of a text interrupted by an unexpected element that results in a stylistic device. Stylistic context is divided into: a)microcontext, realized within one sentence; b)macrocontext, realized within a superphrasal unit or paragraph; c)megacontext, comprising the whole literary work.

22. Pronouns are rarely used stylistically, which makes their stylistic usage especially expressive

Pronouns can also undergo various contextual transpositions:

1) I - > WE transposition:- when "we" is used as a symbol of royal power.- when the author speaks on behalf of a certain group, party, or class. 2) I - > ONE transposition gives an utterance a more general, impersonal character. 3) I - > YOU transposition is frequently employed in reported speech and some descriptions; it also imparts to the utterance the freshness of immediate address to the listener or reader. 4) I - > HE/SHE transposition takes place when the speaker tells his/her story as an onlooker; addresses himself/herself as an interlocutor; overstresses his/her relevance: laughs away what is said about him/her by the others; 5) YOU - > WE ("clinical we") transposition conveys a patronizing attitude of the senior/superior to the junior/inferior. It can create a humorous effect.

Foregrounding of adjectives may be achieved through intentional violation of rules of formation of the degrees of comparison.