A dancing-girl – a dancer

A dancing girl – a girl in the act of dancing

A missing-list – a list of missing people (after a battle, disaster, etc.)

A missing list – a list that has disappeared

9. Types of word accents. Linguistically relevant degrees of word stress

The numerous variations of English word stress are systematized in the typology of accentual structure of English words worked out by G.P. Torsuyev. He classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables, their degree or character (the main and the secondary stress). The distribution of stressed syllables within the word accentual types forms accentual structures of words. Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected with the morphological type of words, with the number of syllables, the semantic value of the root and the prefix of the word.

The accentual types are:

1. [┴ ─] This accentual type marks both simple and compound words. The accentual structures of this type may include two and more syllables, e.g. 'fafher, 'possibly, 'mother-in-law, 'gas-pipe.

2. [┴ ┴] The accentual type is commonly realized in compound words, most of them are with separable prefixes, e.g. 'radio-'active, 're'write, 'diso'bey.

3. [┴ ┴ ┴] and 4. [┴ ┴ ┴ ┴] The accentual types are met in initial compound abbreviations like 'U'S'A, 'U'S'S'R.

5. [┴ ┬ ─] The type is realized both in simple and compound words, very common among compound words, e.g. 'hair-ֻdresser, 'sub-ֻstructure.

6. [┬ ┴ ─] ֻThe accentual type marks a great number of simple words and some compound words as well. In simple words the stresses fall onto: maga'zine, ֻhospi'tality, ֻdis'organi'zation.

The other less popular types are the following ones:

7. [┴ ┬ ┴ ─] 'misֻrepre'sent

8. [┬ ┬ ┴ ─] ֻindiֻviduali'zation

9. [┴ ┴ ┬ ─] 'un'seaֻworthy

10. [┴ ─ ─ ┬] 'soda-ֻwater ֻbottle

11. [┬ ┴ ┬] ֻginger'beer-bottle

The data given above suggest an idea of the great variability in the accentual structure of English words. The most widely spread among the enumerated accentual types are supposed to be Type 1, Type 2, Type 5 and Type 6. Each type includes varieties of definite accentual structures with different numbers of syllables and marks thousands of words. So the four of them cover the main bulk of most common English words and are therefore most typical for the English vocabulary.

The variability of the word accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. The accentual structure of words may be altered under the influence of rhythm, e.g. An 'unpolished 'stone but: The 'stone was un'polished.

The tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of words. With the quickening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished, the vowels are reduced or elided, the secondary stress may be dropped, e.g. The 'whole organi'zation of the 'meeting was 'faulty.

We must also bear in mind that in most languages all these types are combined.

10. Word accentuation tendencies and basic stress patterns. The main rules of word stress

Some scholars, Chomsky and Halle (Chomsky, N., Halle, M., 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. Harper & Row, New York) make contrast between two ways of representing English word stress or accent. For Chomsky–Halle and for Garde, full vowels are always stressed; for the dictionary makers, full vowels can be either accented or unaccented. The dictionary representations, with alternating accented and unaccented syllables, suggest a natural way of assigning foot structure to syllables. Feet can be ternary, binary, or unary, but the latter are permitted only word finally. All syllables are assigned to some foot, with the exception that there are some word-initial syllables that remain unfooted (and by implication, unaccented). For most English words neither foot structure nor the location of accents is part of the lexical entry. Hence, there must be a set of metrification rules for creating feet. The location of the accents then is easily derived from the generated foot structures. The rules can be applied to various kinds of morphologically simple (underived) words. No additional mechanisms are required for morphologically complex forms. The metrification rules apply simultaneously to each morphological constituent. This manner of forming feet is not cyclic in accordance with the usual interpretation of that concept.

Many theories connected with word stress are connected with its Placement in different languages. We may classify types of words stress in different languages in the following way. Languages with:

fixed stress:

1. French (the stress falls on the last syllable): e.g. l’ecole, habiter, la maison etc.

2. Finish and Czech (The stress – on the 1^st syllable)

e.g. Fin. – sauna; Czech podzim, Slovak jesen

3. Polish (The stress – on the last but one syllable)

e.g. kobięta – womаn, pisklęta – nestling, žycię – life

free stress:

1. English e.g. 'appetite – be'ginning – ba'loon

2. Russian e.g. όзеро – погόда – молокό