1) Lexicology and its subbranches (L. as a science; 3 subbranches: etimology, wordbuilding, semasiology) Lexicology – lexis (word) + logos (learning).

The exact meaning of the word “lexicology” is “the science about words and phrases”. Lexicology is a theoretical discipline which is subdivided into 3 subbrances: etymology, word-building and semasiology.

Etymology studies the origin of words. It tries to study the development of the word in the history if the English language. It is generally concerned with the sources from which the words came into the English language.

Word-building. It may be looked upon from 2 points of view. On the one hand it’s the process of word creation and on the other hand it’s the result of this process. Word-building is closely related to lexicology on the one hand and to grammar on the other.

Semasiology deals with the meaning of words and the relationship between the meaning of words and things which they indicate. We should point out that the meaning of words is not stable. In the course of time it changes. It can be narrowed or extended.

Ex. Junk - poor quality (new meaning). Junk – old robe (old meaning).

We shouldn’t mixed it up: semasiology (science about meaning of words), semantics (meaning), pragmatics (speaker).

2) Different approaches to the problems of lexicology (paradigmatical and syntadigmatical approaches; synchronical and diachronical); the relationship of lexicology with other subjects (stylistics, grammar history of eng.language)

Different approaches to the problems of lexicology

• Syntagmatical – study in the context, for example in the sentence.

• Paradigmatical – study out of the context.

Ex. To build. S. – I build the house. P. – build-built-built.

Syntagmatical analysis is interested in modern words. It doesn’t pay any attention to changes happening to words. Paradigmatical may be described as a vertical analysis and it deals with changes of word in the course of time. The -chron- part they share comes from Greek khronos, meaning "time" (or "pertaining to time") The prefix syn- means "together", "with"; the prefix dia- means "through". 

In linguistics, synchronic means "relating to the study of a language at only one point in its history". So, if for example you study modern French, or ancient Greek, or Medieval Latin, your linguistic study is "synchronic", because you focus on a given language in a specific point in its history/evolution. On the other hand, if you study the evolution of a language since its origins, your linguistic study is diachronic. 

Connection of lexicology with other sciences

Word-building as a subbranch of lexicology is closely connected with grammar. They are both interested in the morphological structure of words.

Semasiology is closely connected with stylistics which studies expressive means of the language.

Both stylistic and semasiology have the same object of study. That is the meaning.

Etymology in its turn is closely connected with the history of the language. Besides, lexicology is connected with phonetics.

Student’s books ’ – possessive case s - plural

Girl – root morpheme

Lexicology is connected with text interpretation because it is mainly interested in the meaning of the word and in the context.

3) Homogeneous and heterogeneous character of the English vocabulary Homogeneous – гомогенный (однородный)

Heterogeneous – гетерогенный (разнородный)

Approaching the English vocabulary sintagmatically at a given moment of speech, we may discover that it is systematic, in other words it is made up of homogeneous elements which possess certain properties which have much in common.

The vocabulary is a certain system of words and this system may be characterised as the sum total of words. But there were some scholars who claimed that the vocabulary of any language can’t be classified and described as systematic because of the great number of words in it.

They insisted on the fact that in this respect the vocabulary is different from grammatical system. If we approach the vocabulary paradigmatically, we can discover that it is made up of elements which come into the language from different sources. In this respect the vocabulary is heterogeneous because it is made up of elements having different sources and origin and different ways of development.

The English language belongs to the Germanic group of language and to the Indo-European family of the language. But in the course of historical development due to the Norman Conquest the English language became very close to the Roman languages because about 50% of words in the English vocabulary came from France. We know quite well that the English language took very many words from other languages and in this respect there is no contradiction when we describe this vocabulary as homogeneous on the one hand when we approach it sintagmetically and as heterogeneous on the other hand when we study the origin of the words.

Some scholars exaggerate the mixed up character of the English vocabulary. And on this account they consider that the English language is the most suitable for being the international language.

4) Word definition (Arnold, Smirnitskiy). The difference between the word and a morpheme and a phoneme.

The word can be defined as a phonological unit because it is made up of phonemes. Every word carries some kind of information so it is the most important informative element of our speech. If we say that the morpheme is a bilateral unit: meaning and form.

The main difference between the morphemes and words that morphemes are divisible and the word possess indivisibility.

All the definitions of the word differ from each other because different scholars concentrated their attention on different peculiarities of the word.

H. Sweet. He defines the word as the minimal sentence and concentrates his attention on the informative function of the word.

Bloomfield. He describes a word as a minimal form so he signals out the grammatical aspect of the word.

The French scholars tried to combine semantic and syntactic peculiarity of words besides they introduced the idea of the indivisibility. The word may be described as the smallest significant unit capable of functioning along and displaying different word forms.

Arnold (classical lexicology): He adds that the word possesses one more peculiarity and it is the positional mobility. He takes such a phrase as an example:

They slowly walked up the hill.

It’s quite possible inversion and change the word order:

Up the hill they slowly walked.

Conclusion:

The word possess: positional mobility. It’s possible to change the word order without destroying the meaning of the utterance. But the morpheme doesn’t possess any positional mobility. If it’s a prefix, it comes before the root if it is a suffix it follows the root.

5) Word motivation (through sound shape, suffixes and prefixes)

May be describes as the relationship existing between the meaning of the word and its phonetical shape.

Morphological structure and semantic structure.

So motivation is closely connected with guessing the meaning of the word through its sound form, through the meaning of the suffix and prefix and through the word environment.

Type of motivation.

• Phonetical. When there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those referred to by the sense, the motivation is phonetical. Examples are: bang, buzz, cuckoo, giggle, gurgle, hiss, purr, whistle, etc. Here the sounds of a word are imitative of sounds in nature because what is referred to is a sound or at least, produces a characteristic sound (cuckoo).

• Morphological (prefix, suffix) – hatless. The morphological motivation may be quite regular. Thus, the prefix ex- means ‘former’ when added to human nouns: ex-filmstar, ex-president, ex-wife. Alongside with these cases there is a more general use of ex-: in borrowed words it is unstressed and motivation is faded (expect, export, etc.).

• Semantic (help of the context) – don’t lead me by the nose. The third type of motivation is based on the co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word within the same synchronous system. Mouth continues to denote a part of the human face, and at the same time it can metaphorically apply to any opening or outlet: the mouth of a river, of a cave, of a furnace. Jacket is a short coat and also a protective cover for a book, a phonograph record or an electric wire. Ermine is not only the name of a small animal, but also of its fur, and the office and rank of an English judge because in England ermine was worn by judges in court.

6) The development of the English vocabulary in the course of time

No vocabulary of any language is ever stable. It’s constantly growing and changing. Some words are dropped out of usage and some words appear in the language. It goes without saying that the vocabulary of any language is depending on the life of speech community. And all changes which happened to the life of people speaking this or that language are reflected in the vocabulary. The reasons for these changes may be linguistic and …..… or they may be combined the extra linguistic changes are closely related to political, economical and cultural development of the society as to ..…... causes they are not thoroughly investigated.

Recently a great number of words were made up out of the material available in the language. This material may be of native origin and may be borrowed from other language.

For example medicine took a lot of words from Latin. There are many words which indicate education and learning, government, legislation came from Latin or French.

The peculiarities of these borrowings in the course of time underwent the process of assimilation.

If the word somehow doesn’t get assimilated it’s dropped out of the language. If the frequency of occurrence of this or that word is very low, it means that the language doesn’t need this word.

In any long it is possible to single out poetic words, bookish,

All native words are monomorphemic.

7) Classification of the English vocabulary (by different criterias: etimologically - borrowings and native words; stylistically; grammatically; semantic classification - semantic fields, lexico-grammatical or lexico-semantic groups; synonims)+ examples

Following paradigmatical approach: native words, borrowings.

According to sources they came from according degree of assimilation

According to the sphere of application word: bookish, colloquial, neutral

The etymological structure of the English vocabulary. Etymology – branch of lexicology, which deals with the different possesses of assimilation or adaptation of the English words The English vocabulary is very rich. From the point of view of etymology, English vocabulary can be divided into 2 parts: 70% of borrowings in English language, 30% of native words. Borrowings usually take place under 2 circumstances: 1) when people have a direct contact with another people; 2) when there is a cultural need to borrow a word from another languages.

1. STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

2. Neutral, common literary and common colloquial vocabulary

3. Specific literary vocabulary

a) Terms

b) Poetic and highly literary words

c) Archaic words

d) Barbarisms and foreign words

e) literary coinages

4. Special colloquial vocabulary

a) Slang

b) Jargonisms

c) Professionalisms

d) Dialectal words

e) Vulgar words

f) Colloquial coinages

5. FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Introductory remarks

6. The belles-lettres style

a) Language of poetry

b) Emotive prose

c) Language of the drama

7. PUBLICISTIC STYLE

a) Oratory and speeches

b) The essay

c) Articles

8. NEWSPAPER STYLE

a) Brief news items

b) The headline

c) Advertisements and announcements

d) The editorial

e) Scientific prose style

f) The style of official documents

1. Semantic classification : a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as : in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc, b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de- (decolonize), re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect), c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as : inter- (interplanetary) , hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election), over- (overdrugging) etc. 

8)The ethimological survey of the english vocabulary (native elements, borrowings, their piculiarities)+examples!

Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.

In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.

Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.

In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language.

The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word may be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language.

When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and the second - to the language to which the word may be ultimately traced. The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other.

There are different approaches to classifying the borrowed stock of words

The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans.

Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation.

Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for a word already existing in the English language.

Latin loans are classified into the subgroups.

1. Early Latin loans. Those are the words which came into English language through the languages of the Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilization and had adopted many Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilization long before the invasion of the Angles, Saxons and Judes into Britain (e.g., cup, kitchen, mill, wine, port).

2. Later Latin borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated into English language in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the English people were converted to Christianity (e.g., priest, bishop, nun, and candle).

3. The third period of the Latin borrowings includes words which came into English due to two historical events: the Norman Conquest and the Renaissance. Some came to English language through French but some were borrowed directly from Latin (e.g., major, minor, intelligent, permanent).

4. The latest layer of Latin words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and scientific words (e.g., nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, and vacuum).

The tendency of the English language to borrow extensively can be traced during the centuries. Thus, one can confidently claim that borrowing is one of the most productive sources of enrichment of the English vocabulary.