Text 2 From the History of Building.

Many thousands of years ago there were no houses such as peo­ple live in today. In hot countries people sometimes made their homes in the trees and used leaves to protect themselves from rain or sun. In colder countries they dwelt in caves. Later people left their caves and trees and began to build houses out of different materials such as mud, wood or stones.

Later people found out that bricks made of mud and dried in the hot sunshine became almost as hard as stones. In ancient Egypt espe­cially, people learned to use these sun-dried mud bricks. Some of their buildings are still standing after several thousands of years.

The ancient Egyptians discovered how to cut stone for building purposes. They erected temples, palaces and huge tombs. The great­est tomb is the stone pyramid of Khufu, king of Egypt. The ancient Egyptians often erected their huge constructions to commemorate their kings or pharaohs.

The ancient Greeks also understood the art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as useful. They often used pillars, partly for supporting the roofs and partly for decoration. Parts of these ancient buildings can still be seen today in Greece.

Whereas the ancient Greeks tried to embody the idea of harmony and pure beauty in their buildings, the Roman architecture produces the impression of greatness, might, and practical ness.

The Romans were great bridge, harbour and road builders. In road works the Romans widely used timber piles. They also erected aqueducts, reservoirs, water tanks, etc. Some of their constructions are used till now. It is known that the manufacture of lime is one of the oldest industries used by man. Lime is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world. One of the Romans, Marcus Porcius Cato, gave an idea of a kiln for lime pro­duction: its shape and dimensions. They are rough cylindrical or rectangular structures, built of stone in a hillside with an arched opening at the front to enable the fire to be made and the lime to be withdrawn. Such kilns were fired with wood or coal and were ex­tremely inefficient. There are still many remains of kilns in some places of Great Britain as well as roads and the famous Hadrian Wall, which was erected to protect the Romans from the Celtic tribes in the first century A.D. Britain was a province of the Roman Empire for about four centuries. There are many things today in Britain to remind the people of the Romans: towns, roads, wells and the words.

By the way, Hadrian, the Roman emperor, was also the one who suggested the absolutely new for that time idea of building the Pan­theon with a dome. He constructed it, and alongside with a number of other outstanding buildings such as the Coliseum and the Baths of Caracaila, it is still there in Rome. Many ancient buildings in Rome were designed by Hadrian as well as by other Roman emper­ors. In a period of 800 to 900 years the Romans developed concrete to the position of the main structural material in the empire.

It is surprising, therefore, that after the fall of the Empire, much of the great knowledge should have disappeared so completely. The knowledge of how to make durable concrete has been lost for centuries, but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time.

Fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction was reflected in many ways. Buildings combined the Roman arch and the steep peaked roof of Northern Europe. Roman traditions were con­tinued in the architectural form known as Romanesque, London Bridge, finished in 1209, took thirty-three years to build. It consisted of nineteen irregular pointed arches with its piers resting on broad foundation, which was designed to withstand the Thames current.

The Romanian period was followed by other periods each of which produced its own type of architecture and building materials. During the last hundred years many new methods of building have been discovered. One of the most recent discoveries is the usefulness of steel as a building material.

Nowadays when it is necessary to have a very tall building, the frame of it is first built in steel and then the building is completed in concrete. Concrete is an artificial kind of stone, much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much stronger than they are. The earliest findings of concrete building fragments belonging to prehistoric times were discovered in Mexico and Peru. The Egyptians in the construc­tion of bridges, roads and town walls employed it. There are evi­dences that ancient Greeks also used concrete in the building purposes. The use of concrete by the ancient Romans can be traced back as far as 500 B.C. They were the first to use it throughout the ancient Roman Empire on a pretty large scale and many constructions made of concrete remain till nowadays thus proving the long life of buildings made of concrete. Of course, it was not the concrete people use today. It consisted of mud, clay and pure lime, which were used to hold together the roughly broken stone in foundations and walls. It was the so-called "pseudo concrete". The idea of such building material might have been borrowed from the ancient Greeks as some samples of it were found in the ruins of Pompeii.

Task 10 Underline the sentences that best sum up the main idea of each part and use key words from them to make a plan of the text in order to retell it according to your plan.

Task 11 Find Russian equivalents to the following:

Water tank, position, reservoir, arch, pillar, to embody, timber, lime, hillside, arched openings, to find out, kiln, timber pile, tribe, the steep peaked roof, temple, tomb, impression, to enable, to remain, to suggest, to disappear, evidence, artificial, concrete, to borrow, sample, to cut stones for building purposes, to erect, durable concrete, to trace back, usefulness of steel as a building material.

Task 12 Find English equivalents to the following:

Доисторические времена, римский период, грубо обтесанный камень, они первыми использовали, недавние открытия, в довольно широких масштабах, столб; олицетворять, воплощать; лесоматериалы, известь, возводить, строить, обнаружить, обжиговая печь, сушильная печь; свая, столб; остатки, руины, племя, крутая остроконечная крыша, деревянная свая, сооружать; делать возможным (что-л.), извлекать; прочный, стойкий бетон, выяснять происхождение.

Task 13. Match the following words with their synonyms:

to disappear	to find out the origin
artificial	to vanish
to protect	to live
to dwell	water pipe
to erect	discoveries
aqueduct	imitation , ersatz , synthetic
manufacture	to construct
to continue	to compose
findings	to go on
to consist	to defend, to guard
to be traced back	production

Task 14. Replace the words in brackets with the corresponding English words:

1. Many thousands of years ago (не было таких домов) as peo­ple live in today.

2. Ancient people sometimes made their homes (на деревьях) and used leaves (чтобы защитится) from rain or sun.

3. Later people began to build houses (из разных материалов таких как грязь, дерево или камни).

4. In ancient Egypt people learned to use these (сделанные из грязи и высушенные на солонце кирпичи) and they (открыли) how to cut stone for (строительных целей).

5. The ancient Greeks (использовали колонны), partly for supporting the roofs and partly for decoration and tried (воплотить) the idea of harmony and pure beauty in their buildings.

6. The Roman architecture (производит впечатление) of greatness, might, and practical ness.

7. (Римляне) were great bridge, harbour and road builders and in road works (Римляне) widely used (деревянные сваи).

8. They also (создали водопроводы, водохранилища, баки для воды).

9. It is known that (производство извести) is one of the oldest industries used by man and it is (основной строительный материал) used all over the world as today so in the ancient world.

10. The Romans gave an idea of (печи для обжига и сушки извести): it's (формы и размеры) and dimensions.

11. Kilns are (грубые круглые или прямоугольные строения), built of (камня на склоне горы с изогнутым отверстием) at the front (чтобы делать возможным образование огня) and the lime to be withdrawn.

12. The Romans (сделали бетон одним из главных строительных материалов) in the empire.

13. Roman traditions (были продолжены) in the architectural form known as Romanesque.

14. During the last hundred years (были открыты новые методы строительства).

15. One of the most recent discoveries is (полезность использования стали) as a building material.

16. Concrete is (искусственный камень), much cheaper than (кирпич или природный камень) and much stronger than they are.

17. Concrete (состоял из) mud, clay and pure lime, which (использовались, чтобы удержать) together the roughly broken stone in foundations and walls

Task 15 Complete the following sentences using the information from the text:

1. Many thousands of years ago there were no houses….

2. People left their caves and trees and began ….

3. Later people found out that bricks made of ….

4. In ancient Egypt espe­cially, people learned to use…. .

5. The ancient Egyptians discovered how to … and they erected…. .

6. The ancient Greeks also understood…, and their buildings were... as well as…. .

7. They often used…. .

8. The Romans erected….

9. … is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world.

10. In a period of 800 to 900 years the Romans developed….

11. … has been lost for centuries, but mention was made of it in the writings of architects from time to time.

12. London Bridge consisted of…, which was designed….

13. The Romanian period was followed ….

14. During the last hundred years many new methods of building…..

15. One of the most recent discoveries…. .

16. Nowadays when it is necessary to have a very tall building… is first built …. and then the building is completed….

17. Concrete is…., much cheaper than brick or natural stone and much…. .

18. The ancient Romans were the first to use concrete throughout …. and many constructions made of concrete remain till nowadays …..

Task 16 Read the following statements and express your agreement or disagreement. When you disagree give the correct information.

To express your agreement use such expressions as:

I think, that exactly so; How right you are; Speaking frankly, you are quite right; Exactly, just so; I quite agree with you/ I fully agree with you/ I cant agree more; That is my opinion too; That is very true; etc

To express your disagreement use such expressions as:

I am afraid you are wrong/mistaken/ not quite right; noting of the kind; it is unlikely; it is doubtful; I don’t think you are right; Well I think that’s not so; Are you sure?; That’s your opinion, not mine; I don’t believe that; etc

To give the correct information and to express your opinion uses such expressions as:

I think/ suppose/ believe/ consider/ feel/ guess; in my opinion; from my point of view; Frankly speaking; as far as I understand; the matter/ the problem/ trouble is that; etc

1. Many thousands of years ago there were a lot of houses such as peo­ple live in today and ancient people built houses out of different materials such as concrete, wood or timber, steel, lime.

2. People found out that bricks made of mud and dried in the hot sunshine became almost as hard as stones.

3. People invented sun-dried mud bricks but they didn’t know how to use them.

4. The ancient Greeks discovered how to cut stone for building purposes.

5. The ancient Romans understood the art of building with cut stone, and their buildings were beautiful as well as useful.

6. They never used pillars for decoration.

7. Whereas the ancient Romans tried to embody the idea of harmony and pure beauty in their buildings, the Greeks architecture produces the impression of greatness, might, and practical ness.

8. The Romans were great bridge, harbour and road builders.

9. It is known that the manufacture of silicate is one of the oldest industries used by man and it is a basic building material used all over the world as today so in the ancient world.

10. The Romans suggested the absolutely new for that time idea of building the Pan­theon with a dome.

11. The Romans developed lime to the position of the main structural material in the empire.

12. Roman traditions were con­tinued in the architectural form known as the Renascence.

13. The Romanian period was followed by other periods each of which produced its own type of architecture and building materials.

14. During the last hundred years few new methods of building have been discovered.

15. One of the most recent discoveries is the usefulness of lead as a building material.

16. Concrete is a natural kind of stone, much cheaper than brick or an artificial stone and much stronger than they are.

17. The Egyptians employed lime in the construc­tion of bridges, roads and town walls.

18. There are no evi­dences that ancient Greeks also used concrete in the building purposes.

19. The idea of such building material might have been borrowed from the ancient Greeks as some samples of it were found in the ruins of Pompeii.

Task 17 Find in the text answers to the following questions. Work in pairs. Use such expressions as: I think/suppose/ consider/believe; to my mind/ in my opinion; as far as I remember/ know/ understand; Let me see...; How shall I put it?; Well, let me think..; Let's put it this way...; I'll have to think about that; The best way I can answer that is…; That's a good question.; That's a difficult question. Let me see...

1. Where did people live many thousand years ago?

2. What materials were used by people to build houses in prehistoric times?

3. What did people find out later and how did they apply these bricks?

4. What did the Egyptians contribute to the development of civil engineering?

5. What made the ancient Greeks` houses beautiful and useful? What did they try to embody?

6. What was the Romans` contribution to the development of building?

7. What made the Roman emperor Hadrian one of the most outstanding architect of that time?

8. How was the fusion of Roman and North European traditions in construction reflected?

9. What is one of the most recent discoveries?

10. What kind of material is concrete? Where and when was it used in construction?

11. What proves feasibility of using concrete in construction?

Task 18. Explain in your own words the following word combinations:

• Sun-dried mud bricks

• Timber piles

• Pseudo concrete

Task 19. Find in the text and put down key words to speak about:

• Development of construction in the prehistoric time.

• The ancient Greeks` impact on the development of the art of building

Task 20. Speak on the following topics:

• The Romans achievements in construction.

• Concrete as one of the oldest and most reliable constructing material.

Task 21. Translate the following sentences.

1. Применяя научные и математические принципы, инженеры строители занимаются проектированием и строительством промышленных и гражданских сооружений.

2. Считается, что профессия инженера строителя начала развиваться в период рассвета Римской империи.

3. С доисторических времен для людей необходимо строительство и использование материалов.

4. Мы хотим, чтобы вы применили на практике знания, полученные в университете.

5. Уже две недели я работаю над проектом нового спортивного комплекса(sports building), но я еще не закончил его. Я думаю, что все расчеты(estimation) и чертежи (design drawings) будут готовы к концу этого месяца.

6. Я не могу не восхищаться новыми открытиями, связанными с проектированием и конструированием машин и механизмов.

7. К концу 19 века отрасль промышленного и гражданского строительства была обогащена новыми достижениями науки.

Task 22. Write an abstract of the chapter, express the idea of the chapter in some sentences.