Seminar 15 The Composite Sentence Syndetic Composite Sentences:

The joining word may be:

• a conjunction (has no other function but that of joining of the clauses together)

• a pronoun (relative) + is also the part of the sentence

• an adverb (relative) + is also the part of the sentence

Difference between the compound and complex sentences: in compound sentences the clauses are co-ordinated, i.e. they are of equal right; in complex sentences the clauses are not equal (one is the main clause and the other is a subordinate clause).

Compound sentences

The problem of communication types:

There are compound sentences consisting of clauses belonging to different communication types. In this case it is impossible to state to what type the compound sentence as a whole belongs.

e.g. These came nearer than most to meaning something to her, but what? (declarative + interrogative)

 Can we call a compound sentence a sentence at all?

according to communication type – NO

There is theory on the unity of communication type, which recognizes compound sentences as a special sentence type.

Compound sentences consist of clauses joined together by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, for, yet, so. There are some questions concerning conjunctions:

1. Is ‘yet’ a conjunction or an adverb?

2. Is ‘for’ a coordinating or subordinating conjunction?

Grammatical structure of compound sentences:

The semantic relations between the clauses making up the compound sentence depend partly on the lexical meaning of the conjunction uniting them, and partly on the meanings of the words making up the clauses themselves:

1. Copulative conjunctions - and, neither…nor

2. Disjunctive conjunctions - or, otherwise, either…or

3. Adversative conjunctions - but, yet, still, nevertheless, however

As to the use of tenses in clauses making up a compound sentence, we should note that there is no general rule of their interdependence. However, in a number of cases we do find interdependence of co-ordinate clauses from this point of view.

e.g. She had came to meet the Marquise de Trayase, but she was half an hour too early.

The number of clauses in a compound sentence may be greater than 2, and in this case the conjunctions uniting the clauses may be different, e.g. Gerald was disappointed, for he had wanted a son, but he nevertheless was pleased enough over his small black-haired daughter…

Complex sentences

There is much more to be said about the complex sentences than about the compound. The semantic relations which can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied than with co-ordination, e.g. time, place, concession, purpose, etc.

The means of expressing subordination are much more numerous:

1. there are a great variety of conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until, though, although, albeit (хотя), that, that, as, because, since;

2. a number of phrases, performing the same function: as soon as, as long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as, etc

3. a certain number of conjunctive words are used:

1. the relative pronouns: who, which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever

2. the relative adverbs: where, how, whenever, wherever, however.

Types of complex sentences:

The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well.

e.g. Why couldn’t she sense now that he was outside and come out? Type of communication of the subordinate clause is irrelevant for the type of communication to which the sentence as a whole belongs.

Types of subordinate clauses:

The problem of classifying subordinate clauses is one of the disputed (discussed) questions of syntactic theory.

1. Subject clauses – a clause which performs within a complex sentence the same function that the subject performs within a simple sentence. But this definition does not seem to be sufficient.

The sufficient definition  if the subordinate is dropped, there is no subject in it.

e.g. How they could get through it all, had often amazed Mrs Allen; and, when Catherine saw what was necessary here, she began to be amazed herself.

!!! It…:

1. formal subject + subject clause

2. subject + appositional clause

2. Predicative clauses – e.g. It seemed as if a good view were no longer to be taken from the top of a high hill, and that a clear blue sky was no longer a proof of a fine day.

The reason for calling these clauses predicative is that if they are dropped the sentence will be unfinished: there will be the link verb, but the predicative, which should come after the link verb, will be missing.

3. Object clauses – are less easily defined and less easily recognized than SC or PC.

The easiest way to define an object clause is to drop the subordinate clause in a sentence and to see if it can be substituted by a noun (which then would be an object of a simple sentence), e.g. He bought what he wanted  He bought…a book  what he wanted is an object clause.

But none of the nouns can be used after the verb exclaim. The subordinate clause after the verb exclaim is an object clause because its syntactical function is similar to that of the subordinate clause after the verbs say or ask, and that clause is to be recognized as an object clause (also wonder).

Special attention must be paid to clauses introduced by prepositions  prepositional object clauses, e.g. He questioned me on what Caroline had said  He questioned me on Caroline’s opinion. But a prepositional object does not always correspond to a prepositional object clause (e.g. to insist on).

The specific qualities of an object clause (as compared to those of an object in a simple sentence):

• An object clause is necessary when what is to be added to the predicate verb is the description of a situation, rather than a mere name of a thing.

• The complex sentence with the object clause fit any style, while the simple sentence with the prepositional object is bookish or literary.

4. Attributive clauses – a subordinate clause is said to be attributive if its function in the complex sentence is analogous to that of an attribute in a simple sentence.

Attributive clauses can be limiting (defining, restrictive) and descriptive (non-defining, non-restrictive). Limiting ones contain some additional information, e.g. Magnus, who was writing an article for Meiklejohn’s newspaper, looked up and said, “That’s an interesting little essay, isn’t it?” Descriptive ones pose the question of boundary line between subordination and co-ordination, which in this case becomes somewhat blurred, e.g. We shall have the governess in a day or two, which will be a great satisfaction.

There are cases when the attributive clause is placed not after its headword, but after some other word or phrase, not containing a noun, e.g. He wanted Ann to die, whom his son passionately loved, whom he had himself once come near to loving.

5. Adverbial clauses:

1. clauses of Place: the place or direction of the event described in the principle clause. Conjunctions: where, from where, to where. E.g. I am quite comfortable where I am.

• ??? Is where an adverb or a conjunction? As it can be preceded by the preposition from it can hardly be a conjunction.

2. Clauses of Time (Temporal Clauses): the time and frequency of the events described in the principal clause. Conjunctions: when, as, after, before, since, till, until, as soon as. E.g. She fought back tears as she waved him away.

3. Clauses of Cause: the cause or reason for the events in the principle clause. Conjunctions: because, since, as. The phrases: for the reason that, for fear that, considering that. He is suspicious and jealous for fear anyone else might want to share in his power.

4. Conditional Clauses: the condition for the fulfillment of the action expressed in the principle clause. Conjunctions: if, unless, suppose, supposing, provided, on condition. If you call in with a cup of coffee, say in an hour’s time, I shall have your cheques ready.

5. Clauses of Result: events which are a result of the events described in the principle clause, the events expressed in the principle clause being “the cause” for the events in the subordinate clause. Conjunctions: so, that, so…that, such…that. I realized it wasn’t for me, so I put it back in the envelope without reading it.

6. Clauses of Purpose: the purpose of the event expressed in the principal clause. The event in the principle clause is performed so that the event in the subordinate clause should take place. Conjunctions: that, lest, for fear of. She showed him the house in such a way that he might get the impression that she considered to some purpose the comfort of others.

7. Clauses of Concession: an event which cannot prevent the event in the principle clause. The event expressed in the principle clause goes in spite of it. Conjunctions: even if, even though, though, although, as, however, whoever, whenever, whatever. I like having you here, although I like Caroline too.

8. Clauses of Manner and Comparison: the manner, the way, the mode in which the action in the principle clause is performed. The mode is expressed either directly (adverbial clause of manner) or by comparing it with another, often imaginary event (adverbial clause of comparison). Conjunctions: than, as…as, so…as, as if, as though, the more…the more, the less…the less. I appreciate getting back to Tredwell more than I can tell you.