27. The Particle

The Particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or group of words. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particle). They have no independent function in the sentence.

According to the meaning:

1)limiting ( only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely);

2)intensifying ( simply, still, yet, all);

3)connecting ( too, also);

4)negative ( not, never) ;

28. Communicative Types of sentences

The sentence is a communicative unit, therefore primary classification of sentence must be based on the communicative principle - the purpose of communication. Traditional grammar recognized three/ four cardinal sentence-types:

a) the declarative sentence expresses a statement, either affirmative or negative;

b) the imperative sentence expresses inducement, either affirmative or negative;

c) the interrogative sentence expresses a question, i.e. request for information wanted by the speaker from the listener .

Interrogative sentences are subdivided into general questions and special questions, disjunctive questions and alternative questions. The last 2 types of questions may be treated as variants of the first 2 types.

The general question is that one in which the relations between the subject and the predicate are questioned. Such questions require a positive or negative answer (yes - no).

In special questions we ask about some definite or specific information, which is marked by the interrogative pronoun or adverb;

(d) the exclamatory sentence.

Note: (In modern linguistics it has been demonstrated that exclamatory sentences do not possess the necessary qualities that could place them on one level with those mentioned above).

These are the cardinal communicative sentence types in English.

29. Modal words

Modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility, or probability of the action he speaks about.

According to the meaning

1)words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, of course, no doubt);

2)supposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably);

3)considers the action desirable or undesirable (happily – unhappily, fortunately unfortunately);

In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.

Formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.

30. Syntactic Relations and Syntactic Connection

Syntactic Relations

Every sentence is constructed of a hierarchy of PHRASES, each assigned to a specific major category. Phrases are accordingly ‘noun phrases’, ‘verb phrases’, ‘prepositional phrases’ and so on. Each such unit has within it a specific single element, which is its HEAD, whose part of speech defines the classification of the whole. Every noun phrase has accordingly a head noun, every verb phrase – a head verb, every prepositional phrase, again, a head preposition. Sentences themselves are units of the same kind and are headed in the same way. The internal structure of each phrase is similarly uniform. Whatever its category, all constituents other than the head are smaller phrases linked to it at one or two successive levels. Within a noun phrase, for example, the head noun might be related at a lower level to a phrase whose head could be a preposition

[bottles [of champagne]]

These form an intermediate unit, which could be related at a higher level to a phrase whose head and only member is an adjective

[large [bottles[of champagne]]

Syntactic connection

Phrase is a combination of syntactically connected words -Tom and Mary- only if the combination of syntactically connected words are not form-makers – have written

Types of syntactic connection in a phrase:

-Agreement – this contest; these contests

-Government – collected test papers (the verb is always used with some extension)

-Adjoining (the extension is used for emphasis) – He nodded. He nodded his head. He nodded silently. He nodded his head silently.

-Accumulation