3. Translation of periphrase
Periphrase, or periphrasis, is circumlocution многоречивость, иносказание, парафраз(а), or extended rewording of an object through one of its aspects: Green continent = Australia, pub-crawler = drunkard; канцелярская крыса = чиновник, цветы жизни = дети. The term is derived from the Greek periphrasis, ‘roundabout expression’. It should not be confused with ‘paraphrase’, or a restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words in order to clarify the meaning. The Russian equivalent to periphrase is перифраз(а), and ‘paraphrase’ is equivalent to ‘парафраз’ or ‘перефразировка’.
The periphrase carries out two main functions in the text – cognitive and expressive. The cognitive function implies that the periphrase deepens our knowledge of the phenomenon described: three R’s = reading, writing and ’rithmetic, forming the base of children’s education; Madison Avenue = advertising, as this New York street is famous as the center of the advertising industry. The expressive function of periphrase allows authors to use it as a stylistic device: Меж тем как сельские циклопы (= кузнецы) перед медлительным огнем российским лечат молотком изделье легкое Европы (= кареты), благословляя колеи и рвы отеческой земли …(А.Пушкин) By using periphrase, Pushkin shows us his humorous attitude towards Russian country life.
To translate a periphrase, it is important to understand both denotative and connotative meanings. The translator must realize the degree to which the receptor is aware of the meaning and associations connected with the periphrase. Dictionaries and reference-books can be helpful, especially dictionaries of language and culture.
Some periphrases have analogue equivalents in the second language: канцелярская крыса – desk drudge человек, выполняющий тяжёлую, монотонную работу, pencil pusher, red-tapist; черный ящик – 'black box’, human mind. Others are transliterated: John Bull – Джон Буль; or most commonly, calqued and explained: the Last Frontier – последняя граница, прозвище штата Аляска; the Aloha State – гостеприимный штат, прозвище штата Гавайи; the Evergreen State – вечнозеленый штат, прозвище штата Вашингтон.
However, calque translation may cause false associations with the receptor if a similar designation exists in his/her culture: the three sisters for a Russian receptor is associated with A. Chekhov’s play, whereas in English the phrase means ‘the fatal sisters, the Fates’ (from Greek mythology), which corresponds to Russian 'мойры, богини судьбы’.
4. Translation of puns
A pun is a play on words to produce a humorous effect.
There are several ways to create a pun:
Play on a word polysemy: the direct meaning is contrasted to a transferred meaning of the word:
“Owl,” said Pooh solemnly, “you made a mistake. Somebody did want it [the tail].”
“Who?”
“Eeyore. My dear friend Eeyore. He was fond of it.”
“Fond of it?”
“Attached to it,” said Winnie sadly. (A. Milne)
The following two meanings of the word form ‘to be attached’ are played upon: a) to be connected; b) to be fond of. The same principle of word playing is possible in Russian, as the participle ‘привязан’ has the same two meanings:
Сова, - сказал Пух торжественно, - он [хвост] кому-то очень нужен.
Кому?
Иа, моему дорогому другу Иа-Иа. Он … он очень любил его.
Любил его?
Был привязан к нему, - грустно сказал Винни-Пух. (Пер. Т.Ворогушин, Л.Лисицкая)
Play on direct and figurative meaning of a phraseological unit:
Once upon a time, a very long time ago now, Winnie-the-Pooh lived in a forest all by himself under the name of Sanders.
“What does ‘under the name’ mean?” asked Christopher Robin.
“It means he had the name over the door in gold letters, and lived under it.”
The figurative meaning of the phrase ‘to live under the name’ is ‘to live with a false name’. This meaning is contrasted with the direct one explained in the extract, which is derived from the meanings of its components. The Russian correspondence of the phrase admits the similar play:
Винни-Пух жил в лесу один одинешенек, под именем Сандерс.
- Что значит «жил под именем»? – немедленно спросил Кристофер Робин.
- Это значит, что на дощечке над дверью было золотыми буквами написано «Мистер Сандер», а он под ней жил.
Play on homonymy is most difficult for translation. Generally, contextual substitution is employed like this:
“If she [governess] couldn’t remember my name, she’d call me ‘Miss’ as the servants do.”
“Well, if she said ‘Miss’ and didn’t say anything more,” the Gnat remarked, “of course you’d miss your lessons. That’s a joke.” (L.Carroll)
The form ‘Miss’ is homonymous. As a verb, it has the meaning ‘to fail to attend or perform, to leave out or omit’ (to miss a class, a day of work). As a noun, it denotes a title of courtesy. The clash of the two meanings gives a humorous ring to the extract. The translator into Russian had to use a contextual substitution to preserve a pun:
Это мне не поможет, - возразила Алиса, - даже если она забудет мое имя, она всегда может сказать: «Послушайте, милочка.»
Но ведь ты же не Милочка, - перебил ее комар. – Ты и не будешь слушать. Хорошенькая вышла шутка, правда?
(Пер. Демуровой)
As we see, in the translation, a common and a proper name are opposed. The common name performs a phatic function that is also observed in the English sentence.
Play on paronymy (пароним (слово, имеющее пару, отличную по смыслу, но близкую по звучанию). Paronyms are assonant созвучный words with differing meanings. Another example from Through the Looking-Glass by L. Carroll:
“I beg your pardon,” said Alice very humbly, “you had got to the fifth bend, I think?”
“I had not!” cried the Mouse sharply.
“A knot?” said Alice, always ready to make herself useful, and looking anxiously about her. “Oh, do let me help to undo it!”
Alice’s misinterpretation of the negative particle not, pronounced by the Mouse, is manifested by the collocation to undo a knot. It is almost next to impossible to find a Russian correspondence in the paronymous form for this couple of words not-knot. Translator Demurova based the pun on homonymy:
Нет, почему же, - ответила Алиса с недоумением. Вы дошли до пятого завитка, не так ли?
Глупости! – рассердилась мышь. – Как я от них устала! Этого просто не вынести!
А что нужно вынести? – спросила Алиса. – Разрешите, я помогу!
Contextual substitution is accompanied by the change of image.
Play on the word sound similarity: contamination. If two words have similar sounds or sound clusters, the common sounds are joined and a new word comes into life. This occurs according to the formula: (a-b) + (b-c) = a-b-c. For example, bread-and-butter + butterfly = bread-and-butterfly; баобаб + бабочка = баобабочка. A translator uses the same procedure of contaminating assonant words and coins a new “nonsense” (at first glance) word. Similarly, we see a hybrid word in the extract from Winnie-the Pooh by A. Milne: