2. The main landscape zones in Kazakhstan

Table The major biomes in Kazakhstan:

Landscape zones	Area, %	The largest landscape zone of Kazakhstan is desert.
Desert Steppe Semi – desert Mountains Forest – steppe	44 26 16 8 6

3. The major ecological problems in Kazakhstan

• Emissions of greenhouse gases: greenhouse gases per GDP (3.38 kg/$, one the highest in the world); 13.3 tons of CO₂ per person (13^th place in the world).

Domestic energy needs are covered by: coal (51%), Gas (25%), Oil (23%), and Renewables (except for large hydropower plants) (1%).

• Air pollution ( the main air pollutants: ammonia, dust, phenols, formaldehyde, lead)

• Water pollution (the situation around Aral sea, Caspian sea, Lake Balkhash; the most polluted watersheds and basins are the Irtysh and Ural rivers)

• Loss of biodiversity (the drastic reduction of Caspian Sea sturgeon population, flora and fauna damage)

• Land degradation and desertification (current land desertification rate in Kazakhstan is about 70%).

• Accumulation of untreated industrial waste

• Radioactive contamination (Semipalatinsk nuclear testing: nearly 500 tests, including 116 tests above the ground)

Industrial pollution (especially from mining and heavy industries). The most ecologically hazardous complexes are:

lead-zinc industry in Ust-Kamenogorsk, lead and phosphate industry in Shymkent, oil and gas industry in Western Kazakhstan)

• Insufficient infrastructure for water and solid waste

• Health problems

• Zones of ecological disasters (Aral Sea problem due to extensive irrigation during 1960-1990)

Table Demography and health indices, 2000-2009

Indicators	2000	2005	2009
Population (in millions)	14.9	15.2	16,4
Birth rate (per 1.000)	14.9	18.4	22,5
Total fertility rate	1.8	2.2	2,7
Life expectancy at birth, in years	65.5	65.9	68,6
Life expectancy at birth, in years, male	60.2	60.3	63,6
Life expectancy at birth, in years, female	71.1	71.8	73,6
% of population aged 0 – 14 years	-	-	24,2
% of population aged 65+ years	-	-	7,4
Mortality rate (per 1000)	10.1	10.4	9,8
Infant mortality rate (per 1.000)	18.8	15.2	24

4. The main factors of desertification in Kazakhstan

Desertification – the process of denuding and degrading a once-fertile land initiating a desert-producing cycle that feeds on itself.

Table Natural and anthropogenic reasons of desertification in Kazakhstan

Natural reasons	Anthropogenic causes
climatic aridity	over-pasture
unevenly distributed precipitation	salinization of soil
scarce water supply	regulation of river outlets
high solar radiation	fertilizers and pesticides use
low humidity of air and soil	intensive exploitation of mineral resources (mining)
excess evaporation	construction of roads
sand areas and saline lands	construction of oil and gas pipelines
weak and unstable soil-vegetation	weapon tests
wind and water erosion

Erosion – an important natural process, resulting in the redistribution of the products of geologic weathering, and is part of both soil formation and soil loss.

Widespread topsoil erosion results to reduction in crop production equivalent to removing about 1% of world cropland each year.

The main reasons of soil loss, including reduction of its fertility (including both abiotic and anthropogenic origin) are: wind and water erosion

Contour plowing – plowing along hill contours; reduces erosion.