The notion of norm

Norm is the invariant of the phonemic, lexical and syntactical pattern circulating in language in action at a certain period of time. It is a set of language rules which are considered to be the most standard and correct. It is practically impossible to work out universal language norms because each functional style has its own regularities. The sentence I ain’t got any news from nowbody should be treated as nongrammatical from the point of view of the literary grammar though it is in full accordance with the special colloquial grammar rules. The possibility of variations within the boundaries of traditionally stable, culturally and historically acknowledged norm resulted in its heterogeneity. Thus the notion of norm can be differentiated into:

• language norm

• literary norm

• norm of a certain style

• stylistic norm

Language norm includes all language elements and rules of their organization that have communicative value for native speakers irrespective of the functional style. Elements that are obsolete or non-understandable for a number of speakers exist outside the language norm.

Literary norm is the most correct, elaborated, cultivated variant of language norm that serves as an example of the written and oral communication. Literary norm takes socially high position that general language norm and is implemented into social usage though educational institutions, mess media and art. It has obligatory character and regulative function.

Norm of a style, compared with the language and literary norm is a narrower notion and is restricted to a certain functional style or to a written or oral form of communication. For example, such Ukrainian structures as порушити клопотання, порядок денний, це дає підстави вважати, відповідальний директор and привіт, бувай, лікарка, спортсменка are absolutely acceptable from the point of view of language norm but inappropriate from the point of view of a specific sphere of application: the usage of the word combinations of the first group is possible within the domain of official and scientific styles; the usage of the word combinations of the second group is restricted to colloquial style only.

Stylistic norm correlates with literary norm and exists within its boundaries. But it aims not only at the correctness of expression but also at its appropriateness in a certain communicative act and its perfection. The ability of a speaker to express his or her thoughts not only in accordance with the language or literary norm but in accordance with the stylistic norm is the highest stage in a good command of language and is a summit of linguistic culture. Stylistic norm incorporates those language means that possess certain expressive or emotional colouring and which traditionally belong to special types of speech: styles, substyles, genres or types of texts.

The notion of image

Image is a certain picture of objective reality, a verbal subjective description of a person, event, state, occurrence, a sight made by the speaker with the whole set of expressive means and stylistic devices. Images are created to produce an immediate impression to human sight, hearing, and sense of touch or taste. Within the sphere of stylistics and literary criticism the term image is applied to:

- character of a literary work;

- result of the human perception of the world;

- means of figurative description of the character, event, action, condition, circumstances.

The second and the third of above-mentioned definitions are relevant for linguistic stylistics. Image is a word or phrase that renders not only objective, logical but figurative, sensual, emotional, evaluative information and is capable of evoking fillings and emotions. Image is created on the basis of multifold connections and associations between different objects and notions. The more distant these notions are, the more unpredictable and unexpected their likeness is, the brighter is the image. We can describe a flower by contrasting and comparing it with another one. Such comparison does not create the image. But when we compare the flower with the sun we create the image. Let us support this statement with examples:

У нього очі наче волошки в житі. А над ними з-під драного картузика волосся – білявими житніми колосками. Це – Пилипко (А. Головко).

It was six o’clock on a winter’s evening. Thin dingy rain spat and drizzled past the lighted street lamps. The pavement shone long and yellow. In squeaking galoshes, with mackintosh collars up and bowlers and trilbies weeping youngish men from offices bundled home against the thistly wind (D. Thomas. The followers).

Images are connected with person’s mood, with nature and weather, events and states; they may be static or dynamic. The boundaries and the structure of the image are various; it can be embodied in a single word or comprise a phrase, sentence or even the whole literary work. The image has a special structure within which the following constituents are distinguished:

1. the tenor ( an object or notion described);

2. the vehicle ( an object to which the first object is compared);

3. the ground ( the common trait of compared objects);

4. the technique of comparison (type of the trope);

5. the relations between the objects;

6. the lexical and grammatical means of expressing the image.

E.g. Something seemed to break in Winterborn’s head. He felt he was going mad, and sprang to his feet. The line of bullets smashed across his chest like a savage steel whip.

The tenor is ‘a burst of machine gun fire’, the vehicle is “a smash of a steel whip’, the ground is the similarity of two actions, both notions described are concrete nouns, the technique of comparison – the metaphor, lexico-syntactical way of expressing the image – syntactic structure ‘… like …’.

Each highly developed national language like English or Ukrainian has its system of elaborated imagery. This system is influenced by different social and historic factors, reflects the speaker’s outlook, esthetic, philosophic, political concepts that reign in a certain epoch or in a certain social environment.

Images can be descriptive or symbolic. Symbol is a specific type of image. It embodies the most significant and abstract ideas and notions such as peace, eternity, fidelity, victory, life, death, etc.

Imagery is the universal feature of the living language. Practically each word can be a bearer of imagery information:

E.g. And heaved and heaved still unrestingly heaved the black sea as if its vast tides were a conscience (G. Melwil).

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