Part II political parties and elections

Commentaries:

to vote – голосовать

voter – избиратель, участник голосования

to be bound to vote / to be pledged to vote – взять на себя обязательства проголосовать

(за определенного кандидата)

popular vote – голоса избирателей

electoral vote – голоса членов коллегии выборщиков

to cast votes – голосовать, участвовать в голосовании

Electoral College – коллегия выборщиков

elector – член коллегии выборщиков

a slate of electors – список членов коллегии выборщиков

national convention – национальный партийный съезд для выдвижения кандидата на выборы

nominating convention – собрание по выдвижению кандидатур на выборные должности

primary (election) – праймериз; первичные, предварительные выборы

caucus – предвыборное партийное совещание

a nominee – кандидат; лицо, выдвинутое на должность

to run for presidency – участвовать в президентской гонке

ticket – список кандидатов на выборах

to vote a straight ticket – голосовать за список всех кандидатов от партии

fraudulent voting – фальсификация результатов выборов

voter turnout – количество избирателей в день выборов, явка

poll – 1) избирательный пункт; 2) опрос мнений

to go to the polls – идти на выборы (голосовать)

ballot – избирательный бюллетень

plurality – относительное большинство голосов

majority – абсолютное большинство голосов

constituency – избирательный округ

Historically, three features have characterized the party system of the United States: 1) two major parties alternating in power; 2) lack of ideology; 3) lack of unity and party discipline.

The Constitution says nothing about political par­ties, but over time the U.S. has in fact developed a two-party system. When the nation was founded, the political groupings emerged – the Federalists and Anti-federalists. Since then, the two major parties − the Democratic and Republican parties have altered in power. Minor parties, generally referred to as “third parties”, occasionally form in the United States, and foreign observers are often surprised to learn that among these are also a Communist party and several Socialist parties. Third parties have won of­fices at lower levels of government but do not play a role in national politics. However, minor parties often serve to call attention to an issue that is of concern to voters, but has been neglected in the political dialogue. When it happens, one or both of the major parties may address the matter, and the third party disappears.

The Democratic party arose in 1828 and its stronghold since the Civil War has traditionally been industrial urban centers and the southern states. The Republican party was formed in 1854 and originally it was composed mainly of northerners opposing slavery from both major parties of that time, the Democrats and the Whigs, with some former Know-Nothings as well. So the Democrats are associated with labor, and the Republicans with business and industry. Republicans also tend to oppose the greater involvement of the federal government in some areas of public life which they consider to be the responsibility of the states and communities. Democrats, on the other hand, tend to favor a more active role of the central government in social matters. The Democrats’ party symbol is the donkey, the Republicans have the elephant as their symbol.

To distinguish between the parties is often dif­ficult. Furthermore, the traditional Eu­ropean terms of "right" and "left," or "conserva­tive" and "liberal" do not quite fit the American system. Someone from the "conservative right," for instance, would be against a strong central government. Or a Democrat from one part of the country could be very "liberal," and one from another part quite "conservative." Even if they have been elected as Democrats or Republicans, Representatives or Senators are not bound to a party program, nor are they subject to any disci­pline when they disagree with their party.

While some voters will vote a "straight ticket," in other words, for all of the Republican or Democratic candidates in an election, many do not. They vote for one party's candidate for one office, and another's for another. As a result, the political parties have much less actual power than they do in other nations.

In the U.S., the parties cannot win seats which they are then free to fill with party members they have chosen. Rather, both Representatives and Senators are elected to serve the interests of the people and the areas they represent, that is, their "constituencies." In about 70 percent of legisla­tive decisions, Congressmen will vote with the specific wishes of their constituencies in mind, even if this goes against what their own parties might want as national policy. It is quite common, in fact, to find Democrats in Congress voting for a Republican President's legislation, quite a few Republicans voting against it, and so on.

Elections for President and Vice President of the United States are indirect elections in which voters cast ballots for a slate of electors of the U.S. Electoral College, who in turn directly elect the President and Vice President. The most recent election occurred on November 4, 2008, with the next one scheduled for November 6, 2012.

The national presidential elections really consist of two separate campaigns: one is for the nomination of candidates at national party con­ventions. The other is to win the actual election. The process of elections is regulated by a combination of both federal and state laws.

The modern nominating process of U.S. presidential elections currently consists of two major parts: a series of presidential primary elections and caucuses held in each state, and the presidential nominating conventions held by each political party. This process was never included in the Constitution, and thus evolved over time by the political parties to clear the field of candidates.

The primary elections and caucuses are run by state and local governments. Some states only hold primary elections, some only hold caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered between January and June before the federal election, with Iowa and New Hampshire traditionally holding the first presidential state caucus and primary, respectively.

Like the general election, presidential caucuses and primaries are indirect elections. The major political parties officially vote for their presidential candidate at their respective nominating conventions, usually all held in the summer before the federal election. Depending on each state's law, when voters cast ballots for a candidate in a presidential caucus or primary, they may actually be voting to award delegates "bound" to vote for a candidate at the presidential nominating conventions, or they may simply be expressing an opinion that the state party is not bound to follow in selecting delegates to their respective national convention. Each party's presidential candidate also chooses a vice presidential nominee to run with him on the same ticket, and this choice is basically rubber-stamped (утверждается автоматически) by the convention.

The formal requirements for voting in the United States are simple. Anyone who is a citizen of the United States of America and at least eighteen years of age is eligible to vote. Additionally, every state but one (North Dakota) requires voters to register to vote a reasonable number of days before the election (usually thirty days). The primary objective of the registration requirement is to prevent fraudulent voting. A secondary effect of requiring voters to register, however, is that only those who are interested and attentive are likely to vote. A month or more before the election day, a voter must find out where to register and then go there and register or he or she will not be able to vote on the election day. Registering to vote, however, was made much easier with the passage of the "Motor Voter" Act of 1993, which allows citizens to register to vote when they renew their driver's licenses or visit local, state or national government offices for other purposes.

On the election day – the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November of the election year (years di­visible by four, e.g. 2000, 2004, 2008, etc.), the voters across the nation go to the polls. If the majority of the popular votes in a state go to the Presidential (and Vice-Presidential) candidate of one party, then that person is supposed to get all of that state's "electoral votes." The candidate with the largest number of these elec­toral votes wins the election. Each state's electoral votes are formally reported by the "Electoral Col­lege." In January of the following year, in a joint 45 session of Congress, the new President and Vice-President are officially announced.

Although the nationwide popular vote does not directly determine the winner of a presidential election, it does strongly correlate with who is the victor. In 52 of the 56 total elections held so far (about 93 percent), the winner of the Electoral College vote has also carried the national popular vote.

The election campaign is a time-honored American tradition. Major national, state, and even local elections are elaborate, with multi-million dollar advertising budgets, televised debates, rallies, political conventions, and campaign posters.

Americans are free to determine how much or how little they become involved in the political process. Many citizens actively participate by working as volunteers for a candidate, by promoting a particular cause, or by running for office themselves. Others restrict their participation to voting on the election day, confident that their freedoms are protected. Voter turnout in the 2004 and 2008 elections showed a noticeable increase over the turnout in 1996 and 2000. After having hovered between 50 % and 60% since 1968 and even dipping under 50% in 1996, in 2008 the turnout came above 60% for the first time in 40 years.

Americans have more opportunities to vote than the citizens of any other nation. In addition to congressional elections every two years and presidential elections every four years, Americans have the opportunity to vote for state governors, state legislators, mayors, city counselors, state and local judges and a wide variety of other officials. Certainly, Americans are much more interested in local politics than in those at the federal level. Many of the most important decisions, such as those concern­ing education, housing, taxes, and so on, are made close to home, in the state or county.

Article Two of the United States Constitution originally established the method of presidential elections, including the Electoral Сollege. This was a result of a compromise between those constitutional framers (создатели) who wanted the Congress to choose the president, and those who preferred a national popular vote.

The Electoral Сollege is composed of presidential electors from each state. The number of electors representing a state is equal to the number of its Senators and Representatives in the U.S. Congress. Additionally, Washington, D.C. is given a number of electors equal to the number held by the smallest state. U.S. territories are not represented in the Electoral College. Altogether there are 538 electors. These electors, rather than the public, actually elect the president and vice-president. Under the terms of the Constitution, the Electoral College never meets as a body. Instead, the electors gather in the state capitals shortly after the election (on the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December) and cast their votes for the candidate with the largest number of popular votes in their respective states (except for Maine and Nebraska). To be successful, a candidate for the presidency must receive 270 votes.

Under the original system established by Article Two of the Constitution, electors could cast two votes to two different candidates for president. The candidate with the highest number of votes became the president, and the second-place candidate became the vice president. This presented a problem during the presidential election of 1800 when Aaron Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Thomas Jefferson and challenged Jefferson's election to the office. In the end, Jefferson was chosen as the president due to Alexander Hamilton's influence in the House of Representatives.

In respond to the election of 1800 the 12th Amendment was passed, requiring electors to cast two distinct votes: one for President and another for Vice President. The Amendment also established rules when no candidate wins a majority vote in the Electoral College. If no candidate receives a majority, the selection of President is decided by a ballot of the House of Representatives.

It may be so that candidates, who fail to get the most votes in the nationwide popular vote in a presidential election, still win that election. In 1876, 1888 and 2000, the winner of electoral vote actually lost the popular vote outright. Numerous constitutional amendments were submitted seeking to replace the Electoral College with a direct popular vote, but none had ever successfully passed both Houses of Congress. In the presidential election of 1824, Andrew Jackson received a plurality, but not a majority, of electoral votes cast. The election was thrown to the House of Representatives, and John Quincy Adams was elected to the presidency.

Constitutionally, the manner for choosing electors is determined within each state by its legislature. During the first presidential election in 1789, only 6 of the 13 original states chose electors by any form of popular vote. Gradually throughout the years, the states began conducting popular elections to help choose their slate of electors, resulting in the overall, nationwide indirect election system that it is today.

It's often been said and does seem to be true: Americans seem almost instinctively to dislike government and politicians. They especially tend to dislike "those fools in Washington" who spend their tax money and are always trying to "inter­fere" in their local and private concerns. Many would no doubt agree with the statement that the best government is the one that governs least. In the 1984 poll, for example, only a fourth of those asked wanted the federal government to do more to solve the country's problems. Neighborhoods, communities, and states have a strong pride in their ability to deal with their problems them­selves, and this feeling is especially strong in the West.

Americans are seldom impressed by government officials (they do like royalty, as long as it's not theirs). They distrust people who call them­selves experts. They don't like being ordered to do anything. For example, in the Revolutionary War (1776-1783) and in the Civil War (1861-1865), American soldiers often elected their own offic­ers. In their films and fiction as well as in televi­sion series, Americans often portray corrupt pol­iticians and incompetent officials. Anyone who wants to be President, they say with a smile, isn't qualified. Their newsmen and journalists and television reporters are known all over the world for "not showing proper respect" to governmental leaders, whether their own or others. As thousands of foreign observers have remarked, Ameri­cans simply do not like authority.

The First Amendment to the Constitution, by asserting the rights of free speech, free assembly and peaceful petition for redress of grievances, provides the legal basis for so-called “special interests” or “lobbies”. Any group can demand that its views be heard – by the public, by the legislature, by the executive branch and (through selective lawsuits) by the courts. Americans, always concerned that their politi­cians represent their interests, often form "pres­sure" groups, political lobbies, public action committees (PACs), or special interest groups (SIGs). Such groups seek to influence politicians on almost any imaginable subject. One group might campaign for a nationwide, federal gun-control law, while another group opposes it. To­bacco companies in North Carolina are not too happy about the strong health warnings that must be put on their products. Some religious groups call for pupils being allowed to pray, if they wish, in school, or they campaign against state and federal money being given for abortions. Ethnic groups often want certain foreign policies put into effect with their friends or foes. Tax payers in a number of states have protested against rising taxes and initiated legislation setting limits to taxation. Some labor unions want illegal immigration controlled. And, not surprisingly, some pressure groups want pressure groups stopped and lobby against lobbyists. Such groups of citizens have also helped to weaken the political parties. Each individual pol­itician must pay close attention to the special concerns and causes of his voters. What is amaz­ing is how well so many different governmental groups, with their many ethnic and cultural and business and geographical interests, do seem to manage the affairs of those they were chosen to represent. But then, the great variety of local, regional, and state governments does help to ful­fil the wishes of the many different constituen­cies. If New Yorkers want their city-owned university to be free to any city resident, that is their business. If a small town in the mountains of Colorado decides that snowmobiles have the right-of-way on city streets, that's theirs. And if a county in Arkansas decides that fireworks or hard liquor will not be sold within its limits, well, that's its right, too.

DISCUSSION

1. What are the characteristic features of American party system?

2. The U.S. is a two-party system, isn’t it? Do third parties exist in the country? What are their functions?

3. When was the Democratic Party formed? What is it associated with? What is its symbol?

4. When was the Republican Party formed? What is it associated with? What is its symbol?

5. Are there many differences between the platforms of U.S. major parties?

6. What do you think is the main difference between American and Russian presidential elections? Do Americans directly elect their presidents?

7. What is the process that precedes the actual presidential election?

8. When do primaries and caucuses take place?

9. Who is eligible to vote in the United States? Is voting in the U.S. based on permanent registration of citizens like in many European countries?

10. When does popular vote take place?

11. How has voter turnout changed over the past 40 years?

12. How many electors are there in the Electoral College? How are electors chosen?

13. What are the requirements introduced by the 12th Amendment?

14. What is the electoral vote based on?

15. Can a candidate who hasn’t won the popular election still become president?

16. What is the general attitude of Americans towards the government?

17. How are politicians and officials often portrayed in American films and fiction?

18. Is lobbying illegal in the U.S.?

19. What purposes can lobbyists have? Find examples in the text.

20. How do groups of citizens help to weaken the political parties?

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWER

1. When was the Constitution adopted?

a) March 4, 1787

b) March 4, 1788

c)March 4, 1789

2. What is the Preamble to the Constitution?

a) Declaration of Independence

b) Bill of Rights

c) An Introduction

3. What are the three branches of the federal government?

a) the President, the Supreme Court, the Congress

b) the executive, the legitimate, the judiciary

c) the executive, the legislative, the judicial

4. What is the legislative branch?

a) Congress

b) Senate

c) House of Representatives

5. What is Congress?

a) Senate

b) House of Representatives

c) Parliament

6. How many representatives are there in the House of Representatives?

a) 100

b) 102

c) 435

7. What qualifications must a person meet to be a representative?

a) He must be at least 21 years of age, have been a citizen of the US for at least 7 years.

b) He must be at least 25 years of age, have been a citizen of the US for at least 7 years.

c) He must live in the district of the state he presents.

8. What requirements must a person meet to be a voter?

a) He must be registered for vote and must be at least 21 years of age.

b) He must be registered for vote and must be at least 18 years of age

c) He has to have been a citizen for at least 1 year.

9. How do we know the number of voters in each state?

a) from the Files of the Tax Services

b) with the help of census taken every 10 years

c) by counting the voting papers after the elections

10. How long is a representative’s term of office?

a) 2 years

b) 4 years

c) 6 years

11. How many senators are there in the Senate?

a) 100

b) 102

c) 538

12. What qualifications must a person meet to be a senator?

a) He must be at least 30 years of age, a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years, and live in the state he represents.

b) He must be at least 21 years of age, and live in the state he represents.

c) He has to have been a citizen of the U.S. for at least 7 years.

13. How long is a senator’s term of office?

a) 2 years

b) 4 years

c) 6 years

14. What is a bill?

a) William

b) a proposed law

c) an adopted law

15. Who elects the president and vice-president?

a) The Electoral College

b) The people of the U.S.

c) The Congress

16. What is the Electoral College?

a) All electors of the U.S.

b) The people of the U.S.

c) The Congress

17. Who is an elector?

a) a person who has a right to vote

b) a person who runs for election

c) a person who casts a vote for president and vice-president

18. Which of the following can not the president do?

a) propose legislation

b) declare a war

c) make laws

19. Which of the following cannot the Supreme Court do?

a) say whether a person is guilty or innocent

b) declare legislation unconstitutional

c) declare presidential acts unconstitutional

20. How many Constitutions are there in the U.S.?

a) 1

b) 50

c) 51