Text 12

Read the following text and answer the questions to it.

Databases.

Over the years, there have been many definitions of a database. For some purposes, a database is an organized collection of data serving a central purpose. It is organized in the sense that it contains data that is stored, formatted, accessed and represented in a consistent manner. It serves a central purpose in that it does not contain extraneous data. A phone book is a good example of a database. It contains relevant data (that is names) that allow access to phone numbers. It does not contain irrelevant data such as the color of a person's phone. It stores only what is relevant to its purpose. Most often, a database's purpose is business, but it may store scientific, military or other data not normally thought of as business data. Hence, there are business databases, scientific databases, military databases and the list goes on and on. In addition, data cannot only be categorized as to its business, but also its format. Modern databases contain many types of data other than text and numeric. For example, it is now commonplace to find databases storing pictures, graphs, audio, video, or compound documents, which include two or more of these types.

In earlier days, programmers who wrote code to meet Automatic Data Processing (ADP) requirements found they frequently needed to store data from run to run. This became known as the need for persistent storage; that is the need for data to persist or to be saved, from one run of a program to the next. This fundamental need began the evolution of databases as we known them. A secondary need, simple data storage, also helped to give rise to databases. Archiving and historical data are a couple of specific examples. Although files, directories and file systems could provide most general data storage needs, including indexing variations, databases could do what file systems did and more.

Modem databases serve some processing and storage needs for departments, smaller organizational units or enterprises. Hence, the programmers use the terms enterprise-wide database, referring to the scope of the whole organization's business; the department-wide database, referring to the level of a department; and the workgroup database, usually referring to some programming or business unit within a department. Most often, databases are found at the department-wide and workgroup levels.

When several department databases are brought together, or integrated, into one large database the result is a data warehouse (DW).

The smaller databases, which act as the data sources for a larger database, arc known as operational databases.

Then workgroup databases are integrated to serve a larger, departmental need, the result is a data repository (DR.).

Text 13

Read the following text and answer the questions to it.

ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE

Computers have become part of everyday life. Computer scientists are now working on the next generation of computers: one, which will have true intelligence. The first step on the way is the development of "expert systems". An "expert system" is partially intelligent.

At Stanford University a computer has been developed for medical diagnosis. It stores 125 facts about each of 600 diseases. It can tell doctors which questions to ask, and which measurements to take. It can then analyze the result and make an accurate diagnosis.

At the university of California they have been working on computers which can write stories, while IBM has developed the Epistle program for business letters which can correct spelling improve grammar and style and even check for mistakes. One of the most interesting programs has been developed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and it is a kind of computer psychiatrist (a doctor of mental illness).

The program, which was developed by Professor Josepn Weizenbaum, is called Eliza. It uses a technique known as "reflective listening". Eliza responds to what is typed with understanding, as if it were feeling pity and was trying to help but it never adds new information or gives an opinion. The computer seems to understand but in fact it does not understand a word that is being typed into it. Psychiatrists and teachers say that this technique helps people to talk about themselves, and talking about themselves helps them.

Weizenbaum decided to try this program on his secretary. She sat down at the keyboard and he was looking at the computer to make sure that everything was operating properly. After two or three interchanges with the machine she asked him to leave the room.