4 Types of stems:

• Simple (only root)

• Derivative (root, affixes or other – boyhood)

• Compound ( 2 or more roots and other elements – baby-sitter)

• Composite acc.to Хаймович (3 LG word-morphemes, combination of words – in spite of, at last).

As for Grammatical morphemes they can be classified:

• According to the utter expression (positive, zero)

• According the way of expression (bound – suffixes and vowel/consonant interchange, free morphemes – auxiliary words).

• Types of oppositions. The oppositional theory. The private opposition.

There are gr.means of words which characterize a word as a certain particular point of view. They are homogeneous grammatical means. They can be opposed to each other: Sg or Pl, past – non-past, etc.

The opposition of the gr.meaning of the word and gram.form corresponding to it took a homogeneous meaning.

This meaning and the gr. Form corresponding to it is called a grammatical category.

According to the oppositional theory that was firstly formulated by prof. Трубецкой in 1950, any gr.category is an opposition of gr.meanings and gr.forms corresponding to them.

Opposition (Blokh) is generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is fulfilled.

The members of any opposition have 2 features:

• Basic – upon which the opposition built

• Differential feature/

The simplest and the most important opposition is the privative binary opposition.

Privative means that one of the members has a certain differential feature and the other doesn’t.

Binary means two opposed members.

The member of the opposition which has the dif.feature is called a marked member.

The member which hasn’t got it – the unmarked member.

• Form-building

FB is building of one and the same word. It is important to differentiate word building in lexicology and FM in Grammar.

Many scholars speak about 3 ways of FB:

• Synthetic (it is limited to the changes within the body of the word – it is limited by use of bound morphemes)

• Analytical (it implies the use of the auxiliary elements or other words, the use of free or word-morphemes)

• Suppletive (it includes small number of cases. It can be found in the same words in a variety of IE languages. The way implies the use of forms derived from different stems).

• The notion of parts of speech. Criteria used for their establishing.

Every language has a lot of words. The question arises how to study them. Every word is characterized by its individual feature (its lexical meaning) and some LG, morphological and syntactic characteristics common with those of other words.

It’s possible to use 2 approaches to the study of vocabulary.

Lexicology dealing with the word as an item of vocabulary studies words one by one. But it’s not necessary to learn each word separately, ‘cause they have some common features, LG characteristics that are shared by many words.

Grammar classifies words from the vocabulary to their LG, morphological and syntactical characteristics. And it studies large classes of words which are traditionally called parts of speech.

Morphology deals with properties of different parts of speech. By parts of speech we mean big classes of words having certain LG, morph. and syntac. characteristics in common.

The parts of speech theory is very old. In the 20^th-40^th scientific principles of establishing parts of speech were formulated. Щерба was the 1 who formulated them. According to these principles 3 criteria approach was singled out: meaning, form and function.

Later acad. Виноградов developed the theory (with Смирницкий, Ильиш) and said that there is:

• Semantic criteria that means taking into account LG characteristics of words, their LG means and LG morphemes. Here we speak about LG meanings of substance, property, process, number.

• Formal criteria that means taking into account morphological characteristics of words, their grammatical categories of number, case, degrees of comparison, tense, person, aspect, correlation, voice, mood.

• Syntactic criteria that means taking into account the combinability of words on the phrase level and their syntactic function on the sentence level. Here we speak about words having the syntactic function of subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier.

It is necessary to apply all 3 criterion ‘cause only this one gives a complex approach that can help us to classify vocabulary into different parts of speech.

• Contribution made the scholars in this country.

The largest list parts of speech can be found in the theoretical Grammar by Хаймович, Роговская. They say there is: noun, pronoun, numbers, verb, adverb, modal words, adlink, interjection, article, particle, response, conjunction, preposition.

Prof. Ильиш speaks of 12 parts of speech. His list is practically the same, but the article and response words, because they don’t represent large classes.

Блох, Иванова don’t include into their lists the so-called adlink or stative, because these words may be looked upon as words constituting a sub-class of adjective.

• Alternative theories Sweet, Jespersen, Fries.

There are a lot of approaches to classification of words in Grammar. Some of them are based only on semantic or rarely the formal criteria.

Charles Fries – descriptive approach. He used only the syntactic criteria for pointing out different classes of words and he called it distribution of words in speech.

He pointed out 4 classes of words (frames, sentences, oral speech):

• Class 1 Noun (man, story, he, she)

• Class 2 Adjective (bad, brilliant, his)

• Class 3 Verb (forget, told me of)

• Class 4 Determiner (abroad, well, upstairs).

But these 4 classes cannot fully replace the traditional parts of speech. Thus, this theory cannot be applied for morphological investigation.

Henry Sweet took into consideration the syntactic functions of the words and divided the traditional parts of speech into 2 groups:

• Declinables (nouns, adj., verbs)

• Indeclinables (adv., prepos., conj., pron.)

Otto Jespersen introduced a dual system that is described from the point of view of morphology and the mutual semantics.

Thus, the theory of three ranks: a word may be (a furiously barking dog):

• Primary (nuclears – the headword of the phrase and the subject)

• Secondary (serving as an attribute to the primary)

• Tertiary (subordinated and dependent upon secondary)

• Notional and formal parts of speech.

It has been common for a long time to divide all parts of speech into 2 groups: notional (noun, verb, adj., number) and formal (particle, article, conjunction). But sooner or later here comes a question about the criteria that lies in the basis of classification.

Pr. Виноградов proposed to use the naming function as the criteria, but it’s not quite right.

Pr. Иванова laid stress upon the syntactic characteristics and be more exact the notional parts have syntactic independent structure in the sentence. They may be used as a certain member of the sentence. And formal – not.

Ex: She (subj) was (pred) a beautiful girl (pred. or attribute?).

• Noun.

The categorial meaning of the noun is “substance” or “thingness”.

Nouns directly name various phenomena of reality and have the strongest nominative force among notional parts of speech: practically every phenomenon can be presented by a noun as an independent referent, or, can be substantivized. Nouns denote things and objects proper (tree), abstract notions (love), various qualities (bitterness), and even actions (movement). All these words function in speech in the same way as nouns denoting things proper.

A noun also has special conversion patterns (to find – a find).

As for word-changing categories, the noun is changed according to the categories of:

• number (boy-boys),

• case (boy-boy’s),

• article determination (boy, a boy, the boy).

Formally the noun is also characterized by specific combinability with verbs, adjectives and other nouns, introduced either by preposition or by sheer contact.

The most characteristic functions of the noun in a sentence are the function of:

- a subject

- an object

- a predicative (part of a compound predicate)

- an adverbial modifier

- an attribute.

• The category of number.

Number is one of the grammatical categories of the noun. It shows whether a noun in one of this use in speech denotes one object or more than one object.

As all gr.categories it is regarded in the oppositional theory.

There are 2 opposite members – Sg and Pl - so it is privative binary opposition.

The Pl member is a marked member. Sg – unmarked.

The form of the Sg number as an unmarked member is expressed by the zero inflectional suffix.

The form of the Pl contains the positive morpheme of the Pl. This form has a number of allomorphs. That is a variant of morpheme.

• The S infl. Suffix which has 3 phonetic variants: s, z, iz

• The EN infl. Suffix (ox – oxen)

• Sound interchange – alteration (men, gees)

• REN (children, brethren)

Some nouns have the Pl-form identical with the Sg (deer-deer, sheep-sheep).

Some nouns form Pl in the foreign manner (crisis – crises).

Not all nouns have the category of number and we can divide the class of nouns into 2 groups:

• Countable

• Uncountable:

• Singularia tantum Nouns (mass nouns – bread, gold; abstract – love, hope; collective – peasantry; games – darts; science)

• Pluralia Tantum nouns (objects consisting of two parts; spots – athletics, politics).

Problem!

Some nouns present difficulties for the analysis of the category of number.

• Some abstract nouns sometimes used with –S

The waters of the Atlantic.

Prof. Ильиш said they are not SgTN.

Prof. Роговская, Хаймович think that different semantic variants of the one and the same word can belong to different Gr. Subclasses. (water – 1) the material, 2) a large area of water).

• Some collective nouns (family, police, group, government) – nouns of multitude.

(our group is music lovers).

• The category of case.

Case (Blokh) is a morphological category manifested in the forms of the noun declension and showing the relation of the nouns reference to other objects and phenomena.

Case (Ильиш) is the gram. Category of the noun expressing the relation of the thing denoting the noun to other things, properties and actions and manifested by some formal signs in the noun itself.

Case shows possessivety, and expressed grammatically.

But the possesivity can be expressed by other ling. means – word order and prepositions.

The positional Theory.

4 uninflactional cases:

• The nominative (rainfalls)

• The vocative (my friend)

• The dative (I gave John a penny)

• The accusative.

The prepositional theory.

The genitive case can be expressed also by mean of the preposition “of”. The dative case can be expressed either by means of “to” and “for”.

Russian scholars criticized these theories – in them morphological means of expression are confused with some other ling.means (word order and prepos.) which have nothing to do with morphology.

The theory of possessive pose position.

According to it the noun hasn’t got this category at all. And S is not inflection suffix. It may be regarded as a sign of syntactic dependence. It is a kind of form-word like preposition.

The limited case theory (Jespersen, Sweet).

Noun has 2 cases:

• Common

• Genitive

Noun has one inflectional case form. This theory is supported by many scholars because of the opposition theory:

Binary privative opposition of two opposite members:

Genitive - marked

Common – unmarked.

Contradiction is that possessive case has a lot of meanings:

Possessivity, relation of an action, relation of the object, qualitative. It contradicts the oppositional theory.

• The Stative.

The Stative is built by the prefix and the root of a word.

They are: awake, applause, ablaze, afraid.

The problem of the stative is controversial. The stative is not universally recognized as a separate part of speech. Traditionally it was classed together with adjectives, because stative has something in common with adjectives (points to some quantity, can be modified by an adverb, ex.: fast asleep). It differs from the adjective (has no degrees of comparison), it has only one function in the sentence - that of predicative (Ex.: The child is asleep). It cannot be used as an attribute.

Ilyish uses the 3 criteria principle in his analysis of the Stative and concluded that it is a separate part of speech. It differs from the adjective from the point of view of meaning, function and form:

1.Meaning. It's meaning is that of the passing state a person or a thing happens to be in (not that of a quality).

2.Its form is unchangeable. Usually the Stative follows a link verb and occasionally a noun (Ex.: man alive). It can follow an adverb ( Ex.: fast asleep).

3. Its function is that of the predicative.

Blokh: Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a leximic set which claims to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a class of words different form the adjectives in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. These are treated as predicative adjectives in traditional grammar. Scherba and Vinogradov were the first to identify notional words signifying states and specially used as predicatives. They called the newly identified part of speech the “category of state“.

The term “words of the category of state” being rather cumbersome form the technical point of view was later changed into “stative words” or “statives”.

The part-of-speech interpretation of the statives is not shared by all linguists.

The Functions of the Stative:

1. as the predicative

2. as an attribute, though a post positional attribute (E.g. man alive)

The statives in many respects are like adjectives.

Conclusion: the Stative belongs to the class of adjectives. It makes up a subclass of its own within the class of adjectives.

• The adjective.

The adjective as a part of speech includes words denoting different attributes of substances. That is different properties of substances (size, form, state, position).

Thus, the Adjective’s LG meaning is property. This meaning is sometimes spported by special adjectival LG morphemes (suffixes – less, able, ish, ive, ic, al; pref. – in, pre).

Many A. haven’t got any adjectival LG meaning morphemes.

Combinability:

• With an adverb of degree (very clever)

• With a noun (clever boy) A. – an attribute to a noun.

Subclasses:

It has been common for a long time that there are 2 classes of A:

• Qualitative that denotes the quality of substances (a big house)

• Relative that denotes different properties of objects and phenomena through the medium of some other objects and phenomena (the weather is Crimean).

The degree of comparison is the one grammatical category the A. has. Even this category is not the property of all class. Qualitative A. have the degree of comparison.

What does the DoC show? It shows whether an A. in speech denotes a property absolutely or relatively in comparison with the same quality some other substances have.

Смирницкий: 2 DoC:

• Positive

• Relative (comparative and relative)

The comparative and superlative degrees denote the same property of a substance as the positive degree. (older – the oldest).

Nowadays most scholars think that there are 3 DoC:

• A positive

• A comparative (a larger amount of the quality)

• Superlative (is the largest amount of quality)

In terms of the oppositional theory it is a triple opposition ‘cause there are 3 members.

The positive degree is an unmarked member and the others – marked. Both of them are opposed to positive degree.

• Pronoun.

The definition of pronoun as a separate part of speech has caused many difficulties. The theme is that the pronoun seems to share their essential characteristics with the noun (he, she, one, smb). Some other of them have smth in common with the Adj. This made many scholars think that the P. is not a separate part of speech and words of this class should be distributed among nouns and adj. But it was unsuccessful.

And nowadays the P. is a separate part of speech. And the difference of the P. from other parts lies in the way the P. denotes reality. It can denote substance and attribute as well, indicating them. Thus, it has: